Finite element simulation of the influence of TiC inclusions on the fatigue behavior of NiTi shape-memory alloys

In fatigue experiments of NiTi shape-memory alloys (SMAs), TiC inclusions have been found to cause cracks. Based on bending-rotation fatigue (BRF) experiments, which have evolved as one standard method to study the structural fatigue of superelastic NiTi wires, the influence of TiC inclusions on the fatigue behavior of NiTi SMAs has been analyzed quantitatively in this article. Aurichio’s superelastic model was implemented into the finite element (FE) code ABAQUS. One specimen without inclusion and seven specimens with inclusions, at different distances with respect to the neutral axis of the wire specimens, have been analyzed. The stress distributions at the cross sections are nonlinear, and there is a stress plateau in the cross section when the phase transformation occurs. The stress distribution in the cross section of the specimen without inclusion is not only dependent on the load, but also dependent on the loading path and loading history. On the other hand, the maximum stress of the specimen without inclusion is not always at the surface, which is due to the phase transformation behavior of SMAs. The existence of the inclusions changes the stress distributions in the cross section. The maximum stress is dependent on the position of the inclusions, the load, and the loading path. It has been found that the maximum stresses increase as the distance from the inclusion to the neutral axis increases. When the inclusion is at the specimen surface, the maximum stress is the highest among all the studied cases. Such high stresses caused by the inclusions can easily induce fatigue cracks. The simulation can explain the fatigue behavior of BRF experiments and provide a deep insight into the fatigue fracture mechanism of SMAs.     

汽车用钢DC53D+ZF的疲劳试验测试

为了研究汽车用钢DC53D+ZF的疲劳性能,在不同的最大应力条件下,利用高频疲劳试验机测试疲劳性能。在常温空气环境下,对试样进行了拉-拉疲劳试验(应力比R=0.15)。试验采用正弦波进行波动循环加载直到试样发生断裂,测得试样不同应力水平下的循环次数、应力幅等,DC53D+ZF的疲劳强度下极限为222.4MPa。对DC53D+ZF疲劳数据进行了相应的处理,得到了该汽车用钢的S-N曲线,补充了车身常用钢疲劳特性数据,能够为汽车厂疲劳仿真分析提供可靠的数据基础,预测汽车部件的设计寿命。     

Crack Propagation in Flexural Fatigue of Concrete

In this paper the behavior of concrete subjected to flexural fatigue loading is studied. Notched concrete beams were tested in a three-point bending configuration. Specimens were subjected to quasi-static cyclic and constant amplitude fatigue loading. The cyclic tests were performed by unloading the specimen at different points in the postpeak part of the quasi-static loading response. Low cycle, high amplitude fatigue tests were performed to failure using four different load ranges. The crack mouth opening displacement was continuously monitored throughout the loading process. Crack propagation caused by quasi-static and fatigue loads is described in terms of fracture mechanics. It is shown that the crack propagation in the postpeak part of the quasi-static load response is predicted using the critical value of the mode I stress intensity factor (KIC). The ultimate deformation of the specimen during the fatigue test is compared with that from the quasi-static test; it is demonstrated that the quasi-static deformation is insufficient as a fatigue failure criterion. It is observed that crack growth owing to constant-amplitude fatigue loading comprises two phases: a deceleration stage when there is a decrease in crack growth rate with increasing crack length, followed by an acceleration stage where the rate of crack growth increases at a steady rate. The crack length where the rate of crack growth changes from deceleration to acceleration is shown to be equal to the crack length at the peak load of the quasi-static response. Analytical expressions for crack growth in the deceleration and acceleration stages are developed, wherein the expressions for crack growth rate in the deceleration stage are developed using the R-curve concept, and the acceleration stage is shown to follow the Paris law. It is observed that the crack length at failure for constant amplitude fatigue loading is comparable to that of the corresponding load in the postpeak part of the quasi-static response. Finally, a fracture-based fatigue failure criterion is proposed.     

The fatigue of pseudoelastic single crystals of α-CuAINi

The fatigue life of single crystal α-CuAINi has been studied on pseudoelastic cyclic loading. In general the fatigue life was quite poor with most specimens having less than 3000 cycles to failure. The fatigue life decreased significantly with increasing stress level. However, the fatigue failure was due primarily to stress-induced martensite formation, since if the stress level on cycling was not sufficient to form martensite, the specimen did not fail. The fatigue life appeared to be largely independent of percent strain, crystal orientation and environment of testing. Surface preparation, however, was very important with an electropolished specimen having a much longer life than an abraded one. Fatigue cracks grew only in the final few hundred cycles of the life of the specimen. Cracks initially grew in the direction of growth of the stress-induced martensite, approximately at 45 deg to the tensile axis. Final failure was due to brittle fracture caused by stress concentration at the tip of the fatigue crack, the α-CuAlNi being very brittle. Scanning electron micrographs of the fracture showed no fatigue striations but rather river markings spreading out from the point of nucleation of the fatigue crack, characteristic of a brittle material.     

不同应力上限和加载速率下的黄砂岩疲劳特性研究

为研究黄砂岩单轴疲劳加载的特性,开展了不同应力上限和加载速率下的单轴疲劳荷载试验。试验结果表明：黄砂岩的疲劳试验曲线受到单轴压缩应力—应变曲线的控制,疲劳极限变形与峰后对应变形一致;砂岩疲劳过程的不可逆变形和耗散能密度均具有三阶段演化规律,依据倒“S”型损伤模型,验证了黄砂岩疲劳损伤三阶段演化规律;分析认为三阶段规律的本质是砂岩的塑性变形和内部孔隙微裂纹生成以及扩展速度的不同所呈现的结果。研究表明应力上限和加载速率对疲劳寿命有显著影响,根据所得应力—寿命公式,可以估计砂岩在一定条件下的疲劳寿命。     

缺口对GH33A合金在复杂应力条件下力学行为的影响——高温合金力学冶金(11)

本文研究了缺口对GH33A合金在高温低周疲劳及劳疲/蠕变交互作用下的力学行为。结果表明:缺口使GH33A合金低周疲劳寿命缩短,其缩短的程度随缺口尖锐程度的增加而加剧。低周疲劳高应力时,保载时间的作用引入了蠕变分量,促使低周疲劳寿命Nf降低。在低周疲劳固定最大应力,改变最小应力而造成蠕变/疲劳交互作用情况下,其断裂寿命在一定条件下具有最大值,断裂机制可由纯疲劳断裂逐步转化为纯蠕变断裂,其程度主要决定于蠕变应力(或疲劳应力)分量所占比例的大小。     

Effect of the Inclined Edge Notches on the Fatigue-Fracture Behavior of Soft Annealed and Quenched AISI O2 Tool Steel

In this research, the effects of edge notches with inclined angles on the fatigue-fracture behavior and fatigue life between soft annealed and hardened AISI O2 tool steel (DIN 1.2842) were investigated. Hardening was provided by the quenching and cooling by oil. A rotating bending fatigue machine was used to determine the fatigue strength. It was found that edge notches caused a reduction in the fatigue strength and fatigue life for soft annealed AISI O2 steel, but this reduction transformed to an increase for quenched AISI O2 steel. In addition to this, kink occurred on the all inclined edge notches for both materials. After fatigue tests, the fracture surfaces, specimen surface microstructures and specimen center microstructures were observed by scanning electron microscopy.     

高温渗碳轴承钢旋弯疲劳裂纹萌生与扩展行为

 为了提高航空轴承的服役寿命,借助QBWP-10000X型旋转弯曲疲劳试验机,研究了高温渗碳轴承钢的旋转弯曲疲劳性能和裂纹萌生扩展行为。结果表明,钢的中值疲劳强度达到913.3 MPa。有效渗层中大量M₂₃C₆和少量M₆C碳化物显著提高了试验钢的表面硬度,渗层不同碳浓度导致马氏体先后发生相变而形成408 MPa表面压应力,进而提高了钢的疲劳性能。疲劳裂纹主要萌生在表面缺陷和次表面碳化物,分别占比71.4%和 28.6%。萌生裂纹缺陷特征尺寸及承载应力对应力强度因子和循环次数影响显著,深犁沟形状由于涉及应力集中而直接影响疲劳循环次数,承受相同加载应力碳化物特征尺寸越大,循环次数越低。裂纹萌生后沿渗碳层碳化物边界快速扩展同时向芯部缓慢扩展,最后在试样疲劳源对侧近边缘区域发生准解理和韧性混合断裂。     

Influence of residual stresses and loading frequencies on corrosion fatigue crack growth behavior of weldments

The effect of residual stresses and loading frequencies on corrosion fatigue crack growth behavior under synthetic seawater with a free corrosion potential was examined using center-cracked tension (CCT) and single edge-cracked tension (SECT) specimens machined from mild steel butt-welded joints and the parent material. A series of fatigue crack growth tests were carried out with a sinusoidal loading wave form at a stress ratio of 0.05 with a loading frequency of 0.017 to 6.7 Hz. The results show that the crack growth resistance of a weld metal in the SECT specimen is higher than that in the CCT specimen regardless of testing conditions. The discrepancy is attributed to the differences in residual stress distribution at the crack tip in the two specimen geometries. The crack growth rate of the weld metal in the CCT specimen in seawater increased with decreasing loading frequency. The acceleration of the crack growth rate may be related to the occurrence of brittle striation or cleavage due to hydrogen embrittlement. It was found that the corrosion fatigue crack growth rate of a welded joint with tensile residual stress can be predicted using the effective stress intensity factor range, which takes into account both the residual stress and the loading frequency effects.     

Low-cycle fatigue of X 2 NiCoMo 18 12 and X 10 NiCrAITi 32 20

The low-cycle fatigue and short crack-growth behaviour of an ultra-high strength maraging steel and a high-nickel austenitic steel have been studied. The tests were performed in a laboratory environment at room temperature in push-pull cycles with constant strain amplitudes of 0.25 to 2 %. Short crack-growth investigations were performed using bending specimens loaded by a resonance bending machine. Crack growth was measured using the replica method. The cyclic and tension stress strain behaviour has been compared. Fatigue tests were interpreted according to the recommended practice of ASTM-E 606-80. First microcracks were observed after 10 to 70 % of the fatigue life.     

Cyclic Void Growth Model to Assess Ductile Fracture Initiation in Structural Steels due to Ultra Low Cycle Fatigue

A new model is proposed to simulate ductile fracture initiation due to large amplitude cyclic straining in structural steels, which is often the governing limit state in steel structures subjected to earthquakes. Termed the cyclic void growth model (CVGM), the proposed technique is an extension to previously published models that simulate ductile fracture caused by void growth and coalescence under monotonic loading. The CVGM aims to capture ultra low cycle fatigue (ductile fracture) behavior, which is characterized by a few (generally, less than 20) reverse loading cycles to large inelastic strain amplitudes (several times the yield strain). The underlying mechanisms of low-cycle fracture involve cyclic void growth, collapse, and distortion, which are distinct from those associated with more conventional fatigue. The CVGM represents these underlying fracture mechanisms through plastic strain and stress triaxiality histories that can be modeled at the material continuum level by finite-element analyses. Development and validation of the CVGM is substantiated by about 100 notched bar tests, with accompanying finite-element analyses, metallurgical tests, and fractographic examinations of seven varieties of structural steels.     

奥氏体钢四点弯曲疲劳行为的数值模拟与试验

采用有限元方法对奥氏体钢四点弯曲疲劳试验的加载过程进行了数值模拟,分析了疲劳试样的应力分布与疲劳寿命,确定了受力分布相对均匀的试样的合理尺寸范围,并对一种Cr-Mn奥氏体钢进行了四点弯曲疲劳试验研究,对比分析了有限元模拟与试验结果间的差别与原因。结果表明,试样尺寸不同,两加载辊之间的应力分布规律不同;当t/h(材料厚度/加载辊距)1.4时,最大应力出现在靠近加载辊的内侧,距加载辊0.4~0.5 mm;当t/h=1.2~1.4时,两加载辊之间的应力分布比较均匀,最大模拟应力与加载应力(理论值)的误差小于5%;当t/h1.2时,最大应力出现在两加载辊中间,其中t/h=0.7~0.8时,模拟值最大应力与加载应力比较接近,但应力分布均匀性较低;采用t/h≈1.3的试样进行疲劳试验研究,试验后的疲劳裂纹均产生在两加载辊中间,在加载辊外侧未发现疲劳裂纹,这与模拟结果相一致;模拟疲劳极限为498 MPa,循环4.0×10~6周次,试验测定疲劳极限为505MPa,循环3.6×106周次,模拟值略小于试验值,可见有限元方法可以较准确地预测材料的疲劳寿命。     

Fatigue hardening of lif single crystals in push-pull cyclic deformation

The fatigue hardening response of LiF single crystals subjected to uniaxial cyclic deformation, at various strain amplitudes and strain-rates, has been related to the monotonic hardening rate. Cumulative strain in fatigue is obtained through Kocks' flow stress theory on a statistical distribution of obstacles. The difference between monotonie and cyclic deformation is in the relative rate of accumulation of short and long range internal stresses. In the case of LiF at room temperature, fatigue hardening is essentially due to the increase in short range stresses. LiF crystals which are susceptible to cleavage fracture, can withstand large tensile stresses in fatigue when compared to monotonie deformation. Activation volume analysis indicates that vacancy and jog concentrations determine the dislocation mobility and fatigue hardening of LiF single crystals. Microscopic examination reveals the existence of very fine slip bands. In the case of crystals subjected to large number of fatigue cycles, surface irregularities and dislocation banding is observed. Optical and electron microscopy suggests dynamic recovery in the crystal studied.     

Fatigue Behavior and Nondestructive Evaluation of Full-Scale FRP Honeycomb Bridge Specimen

An experimental investigation was performed to assess the projected fatigue performance of a fiber-reinforced polymer honeycomb bridge that has recently been completed in Troupsburg, N.Y. The laboratory specimen was representative of a 305-mm-wide strip of the completed bridge. The specimen was first subjected to fatigue loading. Load, displacement, and strain were measured every 25,000 cycles. The data indicated minimum signs of degradation after 2 million cycles of fatigue loading, as reflected in slightly increased values of vertical deflection and strain at midspan. After completion of the fatigue loading, the specimen was evaluated with acoustic emission. Load was statically applied and increased incrementally until failure occurred at a load level exceeding 16 times the fatigue level loading. The results of the static testing also indicated that only minor damage occurred due to fatigue. Field load testing of the actual bridge has been completed by the New York State Department of Transportation, and the results are discussed as they pertain to the fatigue and static load testing programs described.     

Low-Cycle Fatigue Behavior of Die-Cast Mg Alloys AZ91 and AM60

The influence of microstructure and artificial aging response (T6) on the low-cycle fatigue behavior of super vacuum die-cast (SVDC) AZ91 and AM60 has been investigated. Fatigue lifetimes were determined from the total strain-controlled fatigue tests for strain amplitudes of 0.2?pct, 0.4?pct, 0.6?pct, 0.8?pct, and 1.0?pct under fully reversed loading at a frequency of 5?Hz. Cyclic stress?Cstrain behavior was determined using an incremental step test (IST) and compared with the more traditional constant amplitude test. Two locations in a prototype casting were investigated to examine the role of microstructure and porosity on fatigue behavior. At all total strain amplitudes microstructure refinement had a negligible impact on fatigue life because of significant levels of porosity. AM60 showed an improvement in fatigue life at higher strain amplitudes when compared with AZ91 because of higher ductility. T6 heat treatment had no impact on fatigue life. Cyclic stress?Cstrain behavior obtained via the incremental step test varied from constant amplitude test results due to load history effects. The constant amplitude test is believed to be the more accurate test method. In general, larger initiation pores led to shorter fatigue life. The fatigue life of AZ91 was more sensitive to initiation pore size and pore location than AM60?at the lowest tested strain amplitude of 0.2?pct. Fatigue crack paths did not favor any specific phase, interdentritic structure or eutectic structure. A multistage fatigue (MSF) model showed good correlation to the experimental strain-life results. The MSF model reinforced the dominant role of inclusion (pore) size on the scatter in fatigue life.     

Static and Cyclic Deformation Behavior of the Ferritic Steel 16Mo3 Under Monotonic and Cyclic Loading at High Temperatures

The ferritic steel 16Mo3 is commonly used for heat exchangers and steam generators. The temperature loading conditions for these applications range typically from 200 to 500°C. For a basic characterization of the steel 16Mo3, the properties were determined by means of tensile tests with different strain rates. At 200 and 300°C, a negative strain‐rate sensitivity was observed which is due to dynamic strain ageing (Portevin–LeChâtelier effect). To characterize the low cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of this steel, isothermal strain‐controlled LCF tests were carried out at 200 and 500°C at different strain amplitudes. The cyclic stress response curves are showing principally different courses at the investigated temperatures. The stress relaxation behavior was obtained by cyclic load enhancement tests at various strain amplitudes with dwell times of 30 and 120 s.     

10CrNiMo高强钢的低周疲劳特性

采用圆形横截面光滑试样,通过轴向不同应变幅控制的低周疲劳试验,研究了10CrNiMo高强钢的低周疲劳特性,包括循环应力-应变行为、应变-寿命特点、循环应力响应及其力学滞后现象,给出了相应的疲劳参数、循环软硬化特性及应变滞后规律.对裂纹扩展方向及试样疲劳断口的观察表明:裂纹扩展面与轴向力呈现多角度关系,裂纹萌生于试样表面,沿断口周边分布,且具有多源性;疲劳裂纹主要以锐化——钝化机制扩展.     

Effects of Holding Time on Thermomechanical Fatigue Properties of Compacted Graphite Iron Through Tests with Notched Specimens

In cylinder heads of compacted graphite iron (CGI), the heating and cooling cycles can lead to localized cracking due to thermomechanical fatigue (TMF). Traditionally, TMF behavior is studied by thermal cycling of smooth specimens. The resulting number of cycles to failure (N _f) constitutes a single parameter that can be used to predict actual service failures. Nevertheless, there are also some drawbacks of the conventional testing procedures, most noticeably the prolonged testing times and a considerable scatter in test results. To address these drawbacks, TMF tests were performed using notched specimens, resulting in shorter testing times with less scatter. In the case of cast iron, artificial notches do not necessarily change the TMF behavior since the inherent graphite particles behave as internal notches. Using a notch depth of 0.2 mm, the effect of prolonged holding times (HT) on TMF lifetime was studied and a clear effect was found. Extended holding times were also found to be accompanied by relaxation of compressive stresses, causing higher tensile stresses to develop in the subsequent low temperature stages of the TMF cycles. The lifetimes in notched CGI specimens can be predicted by the Paris’ fatigue crack growth model. This model was used to differentiate between the individual effects of stress level and holding times on TMF lifetime. Microstructural changes were evaluated by analyzing quantitative data sets obtained by orientation contrast microscopy based on electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD).     

Performance of Tube and Plate Fiberglass Composite Bridge Deck

A composite bridge deck system assembled from glass∕polyester pultruded components has been developed. This system utilizes square tubes running transverse to the traffic direction, mechanically fastened and bonded together, and flat cover plates bonded to the tubes with an epoxy adhesive and through-anchored to the deck support structure using mechanical connectors. A 4.27 × 1.22 m section of the deck system integrally connected to the superstructure at a 1.2 m girder spacing was tested to failure under a single patch loading. The results indicate a factor of safety of 4 on strength and a deflection-to-span ratio of about L∕300. Another section of the deck was fatigued to 3,000,000 cycles under service loading at a load ratio of R = 0.1 and a nominal frequency of 3 Hz. Results from these tests indicate no loss in stiffness up to 3,000,000 cycles. Following the fatigue testing, this section was also tested to failure; no loss in strength was observed. In addition, a finite-element model of the laboratory tests was developed. The results from the model showed good correlation to deflections and longitudinal strains measured during the tests.