Development of nonlinear spectral correlation between ultrasonic modulation components

When a damaged structure is exposed to ultrasonic waves at two distinct frequencies, nonlinear wave modulation resulted from a damage such as a fatigue crack can be observed in the corresponding response, offering an opportunity for early damage detection. This study attempted to improve nonlinear wave modulation-based damage detection by applying statistically weak-linked inputs over two distinct frequencies to the target structure and then conducting a cyclostationarity analysis of the corresponding structural response. The cyclostationary nature of the structural response produces a statistical variation over time, allowing the structural response to be processed using a spectral correlation function. The spectral correlation can thus be used to transform the structural response into two dimensions characterized by their cyclic and spectral frequencies. Then, the damage-induced nonlinear modulation can be detected by studying the spectral correlation values for the specific cyclic and spectral frequencies defined by the modulation frequencies. This premise forms the basis for nonlinear spectral correlation, which is a new damage feature that is superior in terms of its sensitivity for nonlinear damage and improved robustness against noise compared to a conventional spectral density function. The performance of the proposed technique was validated by conducting an experiment with aluminum plates containing real fatigue cracks. The results of this experiment showed that the proposed technique could detect damage even under severely noisy conditions.     

Nonlinear ultrasonic evaluation of the fatigue damage of adhesive joints

An experimental method based on the nonlinear ultrasonic technique is presented to evaluate fatigue damage of an adhesive joint. In this paper, specimens made from AZ31 magnesium–aluminum alloy bonded through an epoxy layer are subjected to a fatigue load. The ultrasonic harmonics generated due to damage within the adhesive layer are measured; and the acoustic nonlinearity parameter (ANP) based on the fundamental and second harmonics is determined. The results show that the normalized ANP increases with the fatigue cycles. Furthermore, a theoretical model with different interfacial compression and tension stiffness is proposed to interpret the generation of second harmonics.     

Evaluation of the intergranular corrosion in austenitic stainless steel using collinear wave mixing method

Failures due to intergranular corrosion in components of austenitic stainless steel have always been a tough problem in engineering practice. In this paper, the collinear wave mixing was investigated to evaluate the intergranular corrosion in austenitic stainless steel. An acoustic nonlinearity parameter related to the bispectrum, the propagation distance and the amplitudes of fundamental waves in measured signal is proposed. Nonlinear acoustic measurements were conducted on four tubes with different degree of intergranular corrosion. The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed acoustic nonlinearity parameter is sensitive to intergranular corrosion in samples, and is well correlated with the degree of damage.     

One-dimensional time-domain finite-element modelling of nonlinear wave propagation for non-destructive evaluation

This one-dimensional time-domain finite-element model achieves accurate quantitative modelling of ultrasonic wave propagation in multi-layered structures. First, a sinusoidal wave toneburst is sent into a single layer of material exhibiting inherent material nonlinearity characterised by the nonlinear parameter β and thick enough for the toneburst received in through transmission to be resolved. The signal processing protocol that yields the theoretically correct quantitative value of β involves measuring the received toneburst for several propagation distances as well as the use of scaling factors taking into account the fast Fourier transform implementation, input signal windowing and material damping. Using that model configuration, model parameters (element size, time step, frequency step, input pressure, etc.) are then optimised and chosen quantitatively to generate accurate results. Finally, these model parameters are used for cases of interest where the configuration is not such that the exact β value can be obtained – e.g. thinner sample, pulse-echo etc. but where confidence in the results remains. This quantitative model that can be used for multi-layered structures provides a tangible resource useful to NDE engineers: a new prediction tool expected to enable them to choose the experimental set-up, driving frequency and post-processing method that would optimise kissing bond detection capability.     

Experimental characterization of granite damage using nonlinear ultrasonic techniques

In this paper, a nondestructive evaluation (NDE) technique based on the nonlinear second harmonic wave theory is developed and used to characterize damage of granite samples subjected to compressive loadings. The nonlinear parameter defined in the new NDE technique is measured and compared with two traditional parameters including ultrasonic pulse velocity and dynamic modulus. The nonlinear parameter is found to be much more sensitive to the damage development in granites than traditional parameters. It is shown that the increase of nonlinear parameter is close to an exponential trend with respect to the increased loading level, which also indicates a faster increase rate of the nonlinear parameter corresponding to the internal damage of granite samples. A practical damage index is thus defined based on the exponential increasing trend of the nonlinear parameter. The new damage index based on nonlinear parameter is found to have a positive correlation with the loading level. This observation suggests that the new damage index may become a valuable indicator of loading level (or correspondingly material degradation) of granites in the in situ NDE tests.     

Noncontact fatigue crack visualization using nonlinear ultrasonic modulation

This paper presents a complete noncontact fatigue crack visualization technique based on nonlinear ultrasonic wave modulation and investigates the main source of nonlinear modulation generation. Two distinctive frequency input signals are created by two air-coupled transducers and the corresponding ultrasonic responses are scanned using a 3D laser Doppler vibrometer. The effectiveness of the proposed technique is tested using aluminum plates with different stages of fatigue crack formation such as micro and macro-cracks. Furthermore, the main source of nonlinear modulation is discussed based on the visualization results and the microscopic images.     

复杂结构焊缝的非线性超声检测方法

振动声调制技术是一种新出现非线性超声无损检测方法. 文中简要介绍了此技术的检测原理,并对其在复杂结构焊缝质量检测中的应用进行了初步研究. 制作了小径管座角焊缝试样,分别在单频激励和扫频激励条件下进行检测. 结果表明,缺陷试样的调制强度均高于参考试样,且在特定高频频率范围内,二者差别显著,更有利于焊缝质量判别. 而采用扫频技术可快速得到合适的高频频率范围,提高检测效率. 与超声C扫描检测结果相比,采用振动声调制技术对小径管座角焊缝进行检测是可行的,但缺陷的定位定量分析等问题还需要进一步研究.     

激光全息小孔法验证超声波法残余应力无损测量

基于声弹性效应,超声波可以无损检测出结构内部应力.利用建立的基于临界折射纵波的超声波法焊接残余应力测量系统,对低碳钢双丝焊纵向焊接残余应力进行了实时快速无损测量.使用激光全息小孔法对超声波法测量系统的测量结果进行了验证.对两种方法的测量过程和测量结果进行了对比.结果表明,超声波法测量结果可靠,声波法克服了传统应力测量方法费时、耗力、破坏、体积庞大等缺点,整个设备轻便,可单人手提.系统支持程序使测量操作简便,过程实时快速.     

Sensitivity analysis of the non-destructive evaluation of micro-cracks using GMR sensors

Micro-cracks in a magnetized ferromagnetic material cause stray fields that can be observed using giant magnetoresistive (GMR) sensors. This work investigates the applicability of GMR sensors to the non-destructive evaluation of micro-cracks via the observation of stray fields. For this purpose, our measurement setup is assessed using a fast new sensitivity analysis based on adjoint states, employing the finite-element method. A model for the GMR sensor is developed and verified. We are able to resolve micro-cracks with an opening of 3 μm and a depth of 30 μm. GMR positioning inaccuracies are analyzed.     

铂金丝超声键合正交试验及焊点质量评价

采用正交试验法对直径为20μm的铂金丝进行超声波键合试验,并通过三轴测量显微镜观察键合区域形貌和测量键合点根部高度.结果表明,在研究的4个参数中,键合时间、搜索高度和超声功率的影响都较大,而键合力的影响较小.通过正交试验法可以快速获得较优的键合参数,最佳工艺条件为:键合力0.013 N,键合功率0.325W(W为键合区宽度),键合时间30 ms,搜索高度0.2 mm.键合点质量可以通过测量键合点根部高度进行评价,当根部高度在4~10μm之间时,引线拉力均在0.03 N以上.而且,当键合区接近椭圆形,且当W≈2D(D为引线丝直径)时,引线拉力较高,当键合区形貌为矩形或有裂纹出现时,拉力则较小.     

Quantitative NDE of diamond film adhesion using an ultrasonic angle-beam technique

Nondestructive evaluation of diamond film adhesion to the substrate of Si₃N₄ is treated by using an ultrasonic angle-beam technique. Model specimens with different values of adhesive strength were prepared and experimentally analysed. One of these specimens had a film which adhered strongly to the substrate, and another had a weakly adhering film. From the transmission coefficient obtained by fast Fourier transform, it was found that the maximum amplitude of the spectrum near the transducer centre frequency assumed higher values with better adhesion. This phenomenon is explained theoretically by considering the difference in transmission for the shear stress at the interface between the film and the substrate, which mirrors the difference in the state of adhesion.     

Stress based non-destructive evaluation using thermographic approaches: From laboratory trials to on-site assessment

Vibration based loading has been successfully used to facilitate out of laboratory inspections using thermoelastic stress analysis enabling stress based non-destructive assessment of structures. An initial plate study verified the technique. A laboratory demonstrator of the on-site implementation was created to facilitate the development and assessment of a suitable loading device. The developed system was then taken on-site at a coal fired power station during a scheduled outage period. Vibration loaded thermoelastic stress analysis was successfully applied to welds in high pressure steam drain lines in-situ.     

Nondestructive assessment of tensile properties of cold worked AISI type 304 stainless steel using nonlinear ultrasonic technique

A new approach based on nonlinear ultrasonic (NLU) technique is presented for nondestructive evaluation of yield strength and tensile strength of cold worked AISI type 304 stainless steel (SS). In this approach, the ultrasonic harmonics generated in cold worked stainless steel, as a result of interaction of ultrasonic wave with dislocations and substructural changes, are measured precisely and the nonlinear ultrasonic parameter, β is determined. A quadratic relationship, with a correlation coefficient better than 0.99, is found between the yield strength and the β parameter as well as between the tensile strength and β parameter of the cold worked specimens. The observed behavior is explained based on microscopy, variations in martensite volume fraction and dislocation density determined from X-ray diffraction profile analysis. The proposed approach can be effectively used for nondestructively ensuring the uniformity of tensile properties of steel components on shop-floor during various stages of manufacturing and also as feedback module in intelligent processing of materials concept.     

Creep degradation characterization of titanium alloy using nonlinear ultrasonic technique

A through transmission nonlinear ultrasonic measurement has been proposed to characterize the creep degradation of titanium alloy that was conducted by creep tests at temperature of 600 °C. The experimental results show a change of “N”-like shape of the acoustic nonlinearity versus the creep loading time, which reveal based on metallographic studies that the variation of acoustic nonlinearity is closely related to the microstructure evolutions. An analytical model calculation has revealed a good agreement with the measured result, which indicates that the precipitate–dislocation interaction is likely the dominant mechanism responsible for the change of acoustic nonlinearity in the crept materials.     

Quantitative non-destructive evaluation of wall thinning defect in double-layer pipe of nuclear power plants using pulsed ECT method

In this paper, an inversion algorithm for three-dimensional profile reconstruction of wall thinning defect in a double-layer region of a typical coolant pipe of nuclear power plants from pulsed eddy current testing (PECT) signals has been proposed and experimentally validated, based on a fast simulator of PECT signals and a deterministic optimization strategy. First, the fast simulator developed by authors for PECT signal prediction based on a Fourier-series scheme in addition with interpolation and database approaches is briefly described as a base for the inversion of PECT signals. Then, the formula of the conjugate graduate inversion algorithm for sizing three-dimensional wall thinning from PECT signals is deduced in detail based on that for crack like reconstruction using single frequency ECT signals. The three-dimensional local wall thinning is modeled as a group of planar defects with different length and depth which are reconstructed from two-dimensional scanning PECT signals through inverse analysis. Through conducting PECT experiment for double-layer coolant tube test-piece and reconstructing wall thinning profile from the measured signals, the efficiency and the robustness of the proposed inversion algorithm are demonstrated.     

基于非线性超声调制频谱识别铝合金板材的疲劳裂纹

基于非线性超声调制频谱法,对航空铝合金板材中的疲劳裂纹识别进行研究;以两个不同频率的超声兰姆波为激励信号.依靠超声换能器、波形发生器和激光测振仪等,对含有疲劳裂纹和无损伤的2024-T351铝合金薄板试样进行对比实验;分别采用时域、频域和时频域联合法分析非线性超声波在铝合金薄板试样中传播的响应信号.结果表明:非线性声学特征即调制频谱及三阶谐波可作为识别2024-T351铝合金板材介质中疲劳裂纹的判据,通过对试样表面进行扫描,建立调制频谱的峰值幅度与位移的关系,据此可确定样板中疲劳裂纹的位置和轮廓,这为航空铝合金板材疲劳裂纹的识别提供更多技术支撑.     

High-selectivity imaging of closed cracks in a coarse-grained stainless steel by nonlinear ultrasonic phased array

In measuring crack depths by ultrasonic testing, there are two difficulties; crack closure and coarse grains. Crack closure can cause the underestimation or miss-detection. Coarse grains can hide crack tip responses due to strong linear scatterings at coarse grains. To solve these problems, a combination of a crack opening method, global preheating and local cooling (GPLC) and a high-selectivity imaging method, load difference phased array (LDPA) was proposed. However, it has yet to be verified. Here we formed a tightly closed fatigue crack in a coarse-grained stainless-steel specimen using a stepwise-decremental method. In the specimen, we demonstrated that our method is useful in selectively imaging closed cracks in coarse-grained materials.     

P91钢焊缝蠕变的非线性超声检测

分析了金属材料蠕变过程中的非线性应力-应变关系,指出在蠕变超声检测过程中存在非线性波动现象.讨论了使用脉冲超声实现非线性检测的方法,即利用超声检测信号高频段与低频段的能量之比作为非线性的表征.分析了衰减对非线性检测的影响,并根据频率-衰减关系对非线性参数的计算方法做出了修正.应用该方法对不同蠕变状态的P91钢母材及焊缝热影响区进行了检测.结果表明,非线性参数随蠕变时间的增加呈上升趋势;该方法可以有效区分同一材质的不同蠕变状态,可以作为P91钢焊缝蠕变程度相对性检测的有效方法.     

薄壁LY12铝合金焊接残余应力超声波法无损测量及验证

传统残余应力破坏测量方法无法满足焊接结构服役状态下的应力测量,无法实现结构的无损应力测量.基于声弹性原理,超声波法可以无损测量出结构内部的残余应力.使用临界折射纵波进行薄壁结构件测量时,易激发Lamb波和Stonely波等特殊波形,将影响测量的准确度.开发了适用于薄壁结构件测量的新型超声波法焊接残余应力测量系统,对厚度为2mm的两种LY12薄壁焊接结构进行了测量,测量过程实时无损快速.用切割释放法和有限元模拟进行了验证.结果表明,该测量系统准确可靠,为航天器薄壁焊接结构服役状态在线可靠性评估奠定了基础.     

Wavelet analysis of ultrasonic A-scan signal of solid-state welded joints

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