GIS-supported mapping of shallow geothermal potential of representative areas in south-western Germany—Possibilities and limitations

The increasing interest in the utilization of shallow geothermal energy comes with the wish for better knowledge about the factors influencing its efficiency. For this purposes we focused on the subsurface condition's influence on the use of borehole heat exchangers (BHEs) coupled with a heat pump for heating purposes, since this is the most popular heat-extracting technique. We created maps showing the potential for this technique provided by the thermal underground properties. Therefore, we established an underground model for two study areas in south-western Germany with different geological settings using a geographic information system (GIS). The subsurface has been divided into layers with similar thermal properties based on geological, hydrogeological and lithological information. The layers have been attached with specific heat extraction values, according to the German VDI guideline 4640. For depths of 50 and 100 m, the weighted mean value of the specific heat extraction was calculated and presented within maps. These maps point out how the heat-extraction potential differs within and between the study areas and how it depends on depth.     

土壤蓄冷与耦合热泵集成系统中土壤蓄冷的模拟研究

结合土壤耦合热泵技术及冻土蓄冷技术的优点，提出一种全新的热泵空调系统形式一土壤蓄冷与土壤耦合热泵集成系统。该系统将土壤耦合热泵系统(GCHP)的地下埋管换热器与蓄冷装置合二为一，在电力低谷期将冷量贮存到土壤中，以满足高峰电力期空调负荷的需要。在能量平衡的基础上建立了土壤蓄冷释冷过程的数学模型，并采用固相增量法模型对其进行了模拟计算，分析其应用的技术可行性，为土壤蓄冷与土壤耦合热泵集成系统的应用提供理论支持。     

Field-scale evaluation of the design of borehole heat exchangers for the use of shallow geothermal energy

A numerical model for the simulation of temperature changes in a borehole heat exchanger (BHE) with fluid circulating through U-tubes is developed. The model can calculate the thermal power transferred from heat pumps to BHEs while considering the nonlinear relationship between temperature of the circulating fluid and the thermal power. The use of the developed model enables the design of a geothermal heat pump (GHP) system with the view of pursuing efficiency and financial benefit. The developed model is validated by comparing two measurement datasets with their respective simulation results. The numerical evaluation of a real GHP system with 28 BHEs and 79 heat pumps involved consideration of a base case and modified cases. In all cases, the temperatures of the circulating fluid at the BHE inlet and outlet, heat pump efficiency, and the heating power and electric power of heat pumps were obtained. The estimated cost of electricity in the year 2030 is 0.146 US$/kW. The most cost-effective system in this case is for there to be 4, 6, and 6 BHEs on the first, second, and third floors, respectively.     

抽-灌井水量对耦合式地埋管井群传热性能的影响

基于多孔介质传热、传质理论以及有限长线热源模型,建立耦合式地埋管换热器井群热-渗数学模型,以原位热响应试验与现场抽水试验为验证依据。针对渤海盆地含水层,通过数值模拟探究不同抽-灌水量对地埋管井群传热性能的影响。研究表明:随着抽-灌水量的增大,地埋管井群换热能效系数增大,井群下游区域热影响范围扩大。在制冷与供热工况下,井孔E7所在细砂层佩克莱特数(Pe)与单位埋深换热变换量Δq关系曲线均呈高斯函数分布。基于所建耦合式地埋管井群物理模型,抽-灌水量推荐范围为400~600 m3/d。     

Current status of ground source heat pumps and underground thermal energy storage in Europe

Geothermal Heat Pumps, or Ground Coupled Heat Pumps (GCHP), are systems combining a heat pump with a ground heat exchanger (closed loop systems), or fed by ground water from a well (open loop systems). They use the earth as a heat source when operating in heating mode, with a fluid (usually water or a water–antifreeze mixture) as the medium that transfers the heat from the earth to the evaporator of the heat pump, thus utilising geothermal energy. In cooling mode, they use the earth as a heat sink. With Borehole Heat Exchangers (BHE), geothermal heat pumps can offer both heating and cooling at virtually any location, with great flexibility to meet any demands. More than 20 years of R&D focusing on BHE in Europe has resulted in a well-established concept of sustainability for this technology, as well as sound design and installation criteria. Recent developments are the Thermal Response Test, which allows in-situ-determination of ground thermal properties for design purposes, and thermally enhanced grouting materials to reduce borehole thermal resistance. For cooling purposes, but also for the storage of solar or waste heat, the concept of underground thermal energy storage (UTES) could prove successful. Systems can be either open (aquifer storage) or can use BHE (borehole storage). Whereas cold storage is already established on the market, heat storage, and, in particular, high temperature heat storage (> 50 °C) is still in the demonstration phase. Despite the fact that geothermal heat pumps have been in use for over 50 years now (the first were in the USA), market penetration of this technology is still in its infancy, with fossil fuels dominating the space heating market and air-to-air heat pumps that of space cooling. In Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, France and the USA, large numbers of geothermal heat pumps are already operational, and installation guidelines, quality control and contractor certification are now major issues of debate.     

Analysis of effective thermal conductivity stability of geothermal heat exchanger according to ambient environmental conditions

At present, geothermal energy is a promising research area but still has numerous areas to be explored. The thermal performance verification of U‐shaped closed geothermal heat exchange was proposed to improve the effective thermal conductivity value applying initial ignoring time (IIT). To verify the thermal performance of the underground heat exchanger in the rock layer according to the surrounding environment and groundwater conditions, verifications were conducted for the amount of circulating water, amount of heat input, and groundwater conditions. The circulating fluid flow rate of the system, supply of water into the ground, and influence of the change of supplied heat source were analyzed. The effective heat conduction characteristics were analyzed using the linear heat source model and initial exclusion time. Therefore, in the thermal response test, the main error occurs according to the determined initial removal time, and the reliability of the effective thermal conductivity value is increased by applying IIT to reduce this error.     

Correlation analysis of geothermal data in North America

Correlation studies of the geothermal parameters have been carried out for Michigan Basin and the results are interpreted with the help of observed relations between heat flow, geological age and crustal thickness for North America. Heat flow and geothermal gradient are found to decrease with thermal conductivity, while they are positively correlated with each other, supporting the earlier findings of Negi et al. (1974). It is noted that, to some extent, these associations can be explained with the help of variations in crustal thickness.     

地源热泵的优越性及前景展望

介绍了地源热泵的工作原理，并通过比较地源热泵与传统空调系统的运行费用，说明了地源热泵在运行费用方面具有较大优势。虽然地源热泵的应用受到一些制约因素的影响，但作为一项节能新技术，地源热泵必将拥有广阔的应用前景。     

The geothermal exploration of Campanian volcanoes: Historical review and future development

Since Roman time, the heat produced by Neapolitan volcanoes was an appeal for people living in and outside the area, for the fruition of the famous thermal baths. This very large area, which spans from Campi Flegrei and Ischia calderas to Somma-Vesuvius volcano, is characterized by high temperature at shallow depth and intense heat flow, and is yet utilized for the bathing and spa treatment industry, while only in the middle of the 20th century a tentative of geothermal exploitation for energy production was performed. Pioneering researches of geothermal resource were carried out in Campanian region since 1930, until 1985, during which a large amount of geological data were collected. In this paper, we make for the first time a review of the history of geothermal explorations in the active Campanian volcanic area. By the analysis of a great amount of literature data and technical reports we reconstruct the chronology and the main information of the drillings performed since 1930 by the SAFEN Company and successively in the framework of the ENEL-AGIP Joint Venture for geothermal exploration. The available data are utilized to correlate the temperatures measured within the deeper wells with the possible sources of geothermal heat in the shallow crust, down to about 8-10 km of depth. Finally, we assess the geothermal potential of the hottest areas, Ischia Island and Campi Flegrei, which have shown the best data and favorable physical conditions for a reliable, and cost-effective, exploitation for thermal and electric purposes.     

Finite line-source model for borehole heat exchangers: effect of vertical temperature variations

A solution to the three-dimensional finite line-source (FLS) model for borehole heat exchangers (BHEs) that takes into account the prevailing geothermal gradient and allows arbitrary ground surface temperature changes is presented. Analytical expressions for the average ground temperature are derived by integrating the exact solution over the line-source depth. A self-consistent procedure to evaluate the in situ thermal response test (TRT) data is outlined. The effective thermal conductivity and the effective borehole thermal resistance can be determined by fitting the TRT data to the time-series expansion obtained for the average temperature.     

Forecast and evaluation of hot dry rock geothermal resource in China

Utilizing information from plate tectonics characteristics, volcanic activities, and geothermal anomaly, this paper identifies areas where hot dry rock (HDR) may exist as potential geothermal resource in China. Further investigations are also carried out in the paper based on results from regional tectonics, volcanic geology and lithology, as well as data from geothermal displays, geochemistry, geophysics, and shallow borehole temperature measurements. The study reveals several promising areas of HDR geothermal resource in China, including Tengchong of Yunnan province, Qiongbei of Hainan province, Changbaishan of Jilin province, Wudalianchi of Heilongjiang province, and the Southern Tibet area. A 3D static heat conduction model was developed to study the underground temperature gradient characteristics of the Rehai geothermal field in Tengchong and the Yangbajing geothermal field in Tibet. The model adopted is a geological block 10 km deep from the ground surface and 50 km wide in each of the horizontal directions (2500 km² area). The numerical simulation results in evaluations on the quantities of the HDR geothermal resource in Rehai and Yangbajing geothermal fields. The paper shows that there is abundant HDR geothermal resource with large exploitation value in China. If developed with a power capacity of 1×10⁸ kW, the Rehai and Yangbajing fields along would be able to generate electricity for 1560 years.     

Mo.nalis.a: a methodological approach to identify how to meet thermal industrial needs using already available geothermal resources

Mo.nalis.a is a conceptual model aimed at identifying the most suitable local geothermal sources to match the nearest industrial thermal needs. The methodological approach proposed is based on investigating industrial thermal processes and then identifying suitable geothermal solution plants that match these thermal requirements. The model was tested in Apulia (southern Italy) as a case study for assessing how the methodology could contribute to reducing the use of conventional energy resources for the industrial heat supply sector. The medium thermal needs in Apulia are always higher than 60 °C, and the main strategic industrial processes discussed into this work are “pasta and flour production” “wastewater treatment/sludge digestion” and “swimming pool management”. In order to match these industrial thermal demands, the most suitable proposed plant is the ground water heat pump system, limited to the first 100 m, the depth involved in the heat exchange through vertical probes of model. Finally, Mo.nalis.a identifies the Apulian areas with a possible development of these three activities using geothermal resource: the Foggia province, Murge and Salento sectors.     

Heat flow in Poland and its relation to the geological structure

This paper presents nine new heat flow data on the Polish territory (Polish Lowland). Heat flow and geothermal gradient in Poland as known up to now are presented. A map of geoisotherms at a depth of 1 km has been prepared. The relation between the heat field and geologic regions is discussed on the basis of a statistical analysis of heat flow for Europe. Histograms of heat flow for pre-Cambrian platforms, Paleozoic platforms, Cenozoic-Mesozoic orogenic areas and mountain foredeeps are shown. The analysis of the heat flow and other geological phenomena confirm that a relation between the heat field and tectonic processes exists in Poland.     

Practical experience in the reinjection of cooled thermal waters back into sandstone reservoirs

Intensive investigations into the utilisation of the geothermal potential of the North German Basin began in the early 1980s. The first production and reinjection tests from/into sandstone reservoirs started in 1982 and led to the commissioning of the first geothermal heating plant for heat supply to a residential area in the town of Waren (Müritz) in 1984. More plants were put into operation in Neubrandenburg, Neustadt-Glewe and Berlin. The use of these sandstone reservoirs for heat storage produced new technical solutions. A precise knowledge of the geological and geochemical conditions forms an essential prerequisite for the successful planning, construction and operation of geothermal plants. This paper describes the geological and geochemical conditions, as well as the technical solutions and practical experience acquired so far.     

Developing multiple regression models from the manufacturer's ground-source heat pump catalogue data

The performance of ground-source heat pumps (GSHP), often expressed as Power drawn and/or the COP, depends on several operating parameters. Manufacturers usually publish such data in tables for certain discrete values of the operating fluid temperatures and flow rates conditions. In actual applications, such as in dynamic simulations of heat pump system integrated to buildings, there is a need to determine equipment performance under operating conditions other than those listed. This paper describes a simplified methodology for predicting the performance of GSHPs using multiple regression (MR) models as applicable to manufacturer data. We find that fitting second-order MR models with eight statistically significant x-variables from 36 observations appropriately selected in the manufacturer catalogue can predict the system global behavior with good accuracy. For the three studied GSHPs, the external prediction error of the MR models identified following the methodology are 0.2%, 0.9% and 1% for heating capacity (HC) predictions and 2.6%, 4.9% and 3.2% for COP predictions. No correlation is found between residuals and the response, thus validating the models. The operational approach appears to be a reliable tool to be integrated in dynamic simulation codes, as the method is applicable to any GSHP catalogue data.     

太原市亲贤地垒区地下热水成因及地热资源评价

为了科学合理开发利用地热资源,在分析太原市亲贤地垒区地热田形成背景的基础上建立了地热田地质模型,分析了热水补给来源和运移机制,并对地热资源进行了评价。结果表明,太原市亲贤地热田地热水来源于大气降水补给,属滞流型无氚老水;亲贤地垒区热田具备了良好的盖层、热储、热源和水循环通道等地质条件,热水是经深循环(受深部热源加热)而形成的;热水开采量不能超过3 600m3/d,热水储存资源量为9.76×108 m3,可实现开采的地热能折合标准煤约1 500×104t。     

Heat flow map of South America

The results of geothermal investigations carried out in South America have been compiled with the purpose of preparing regional maps of terrestrial heat flow. The compilation revealed that 655 heat flow values had been determined, giving an overall data density of 37/10⁶ km² and a representative mean heat flow of 63+-36 mW/m². The quality of the data set is variable, depending on the nature of the primary geothermal data, and the geographic distribution of the data set is also non-uniform. In spite of such difficulties a careful analysis of the data set, following suitable priority schemes, has allowed not only the determination of reliable mean heat flow values for a large number of major geological structures in South America, but also the preparation of mosaics of regional heat flow variations. Heat flow is extremely variable in the Cordilleran regions, with the eastern and southern parts having relatively high values compared to the western and northern parts. The general trend of increasing heat flow from the western coastal regions towards inland areas is interrupted by a N-S trending low heat flow belt in the Pre-Cordilleran basins. In the eastern part of the continent heat flow is low to normal (<75 mW/m²) but there are indications that in the Patagonian Platform it is higher than in the Brazilian Platform. There are, however, several isolated localities of high heat flow in the northeastern and south-central parts of Brazil. The Mesozoic rift basins (Potiguar, Recôncavo and Taubaté) are also characterized by relatively high values.In order to examine the tectonic significance of variations in the regional geothermal regime, heat flow maps have been prepared using manual and automatic contouring methods. The comparative study of automatic contour maps generated by means of a variety of data interpolation and gridding schemes has led to the identification of some geothermal features that are believed to be related to tectonic processes affecting the South American continent. Prominent among these are E-W trending belts of low heat flow in northern Peru and in central Chile (extending into the Sierras Pampeans in Argentina), as well as high heat flow belts in northern Chile (extending into the Altiplano in Bolivia) and southern Chile (extending into western Argentina). The low heat flow belts coincide approximately with zones of sub-horizontal subduction, while the high heat flow belts are situated in regions of high-angle subduction. Some of these features correlate well with the results of studies on anelastic attenuation, electrical resistivity distribution and some patterns of global seismic tomography. On the other hand, many of these features are not evident in the recent spherical harmonic analysis of global heat flow, which suggests that the use of empirical predictors based on a heat flow-age relation in devising global heat flow maps should be restricted to tectonically stable areas.     

地源热泵地下岩土热物性的测定方法

提出了可用于现场测量计算地下岩土综合热物性参数的方法。垂直埋设在地下的换热器与周围岩土换热过程可以近似地看作半无限大介质中常热流边界条件下的非稳态导热过程来处理。这种方法克服了其他常用研究模型对钻孔中埋管的具体位置、上升管及下降管之间的距离、换热器材料和回填材料的物性参数的要求,相应地消除了上述各个参数所带来的误差。通过测量地埋换热器的循环水流量、进出水口温度,加热器的加热功率等数据确定地下岩土综合的热物性参数。     

热力弥散对地埋管换热器所在含水层传热过程的影响

针对地埋管换热器所在含水层三维非稳态传热模型进行优化,建立涵盖热力弥散效应的含水层过余温度解析模型。结合渗流砂箱热响应实验,探究热力弥散效应对于含水层传热特性与热扩散范围的影响。研究结果表明,当考虑热力弥散效应时,各观测点过余温度解析解与实验结果相似度增强,两者均方根误差RMSE(Θ)小于3%。通过计算得到,热力弥散效应对于含水层温度场演化过程的影响具有时空非一致性特征。当含水层中传热过程趋于稳定后,随着热力弥散效应的提高,地埋管井群所在区域过余温度变化幅度增大;位于下游区域的过余温度变化幅度则逐渐下降,热扩散范围缩小。     

Transient 3D analysis of borehole heat exchanger modeling

This paper presents the development and application of a three-dimensional (3D) numerical simulation model for U-tube borehole heat exchangers (BHEs). The proposed model includes the thermal capacities of the borehole components, viz., the fluid inside the tubes, as well as the grouting material, making it possible to consider the transient effects of heat and mass transports inside the borehole. In this approach, the use of simplified thermal resistance and capacity models (TRCMs) provides accurate results while substantially reducing the number of nodes and the computation time compared with fully discretized computations such as finite element (FE) models. The model is compared with a fully discretized FE model which serves as a reference. Furthermore, the model is used to evaluate thermal response test (TRT) data by the parameter estimation technique. Comparison of the model results with the results of an analytical model based on the line-source theory further establishes the advantage of the developed 3D transient model, as the test duration can be shortened and results are more accurate.