Magnetic NDT Technology for characterization of decarburizing depth

From practical point of view, determining the decarburizing depth is important in quality control of steel parts as it has undesirable effects on the mechanical properties such as hardness, wear and fatigue resistance. Traditional destructive methods of determining the depth of decarburized layer include metallographic and hardness test which are time-consuming and costly. Since response to eddy current is sensitive to chemical composition as well as microstructure of the material under consideration, the non-destructive method can be used in determining the depth of the decarburized layer in steel parts. It is mainly due to the difference in the microstructures, and as a result, in the magnetic properties of the decarburized layer with other parts of the specimen. In the present study at the first step, the magnetic properties of decarburized carbon steel bars (0.45 wt.% C) were evaluated using an electromagnetic sensor and correlated with the microstructure changes from surface to the core of the sample. At the second step the steel bars were held in 900 °C for different period of times and the depth of decarburizing layers were measured using hardness testing. Finally, the non-destructive eddy current technique was used and the response of test samples to the induction current including primary and secondary voltages, normalized impedance, phase angle and harmonic analysis parameters were investigated. Results show an acceptable accuracy in comparison to the destructive method.     

Eddy current flaw characterization in tubes by neural networks and finite element modeling

For quantitative flaw characterization in steam generator tubes, inversion of eddy current testing (ECT) signals in an automated fashion is strongly desired. In this paper, we report our effort to develop a systematic approach for flaw characterization in tubes by the novel combination of neural networks and finite element modeling.Specifically, the finite element model that can predict ECT signals from axisymmetric flaws in tubes was developed, and its accuracy was verified experimentally. Using this model, an abundant synthetic database with 400 ECT signals generated from 200 axisymmetric machined grooves in four types has been constructed with two test frequencies per flaw.For the automated inversion of ECT signals, a total of 22 features have been extracted from each flaw. Then, a set of 10 features has been selected for flaw classification, while the other set of 10 features for flaw sizing. For the determination of the flaw type and the flaw size parameters, we have proposed an intelligent flaw characterization system that adopts two different paradigms of neural networks: probabilistic neural networks for flaw classification and back propagation neural networks for flaw sizing.The performance of this system has been investigated using the synthetic ECT signals in the database. The excellent performance presented here, even though it has been obtained from synthetic flaws representing machined grooves in tubes, demonstrates the high potential of this system to serve as a robust tool for practical flaw characterization in tubes.     

有限元方法用于涡流电磁场计算的有效性分析

利用有限元方法，对涡流检测中的电磁场问题进行数值计算，有助于涡流检测线圈的优化设计、检测缺陷的识别与定量，从而提高涡流检测的效果与精度。为验证有限元数值计算结果的有效性，对TEAM（Testing Electromagnetic Analysis Methods）组织提出的Workshop问题（Problem 15）进行了求解与分析。利用解析方法计算了空芯线圈的阻抗，然后通过二维有限元模型进行了阻抗求解，对比结果有较好的一致性。针对厚板上裂纹的涡流检测，建立了三维有限元计算模型，对影响计算结果的因素进行了分析，得到了比较好的数值模拟结果。     

基于有限元法的涡流传感器设计

针对某特殊形状输油管的涡流检测需求,提出了弧形线圈涡流探头的设计思路。建立了输油管及探头的有限元模型,实现了单个线圈不同尺寸、不同匝数、不同激励频率下试件有／无裂纹情况下阻抗的仿真计算,给出了阻抗相对变化率。试验结果表明,有限元仿真研究与实际结果有较好的一致性,可用于指导特殊涡流传感器的设计。     

Mechanical damage detection using magnetic flux leakage tools: modeling the effect of dent geometry and stresses

We have used three-dimensional (3D) magnetic finite element analysis (FEA) to simulate the MFL signal from a circular dent geometry with associated residual stresses. Strain distribution information around the dent was obtained from an earlier work using finite element structural modeling. In the magnetic FEA dent model, the localized residual stresses were simulated by assigning appropriate values of magnetic anisotropy to the relevant magnetic regions. The simulated flux leakage patterns were found to be in good agreement with the experimentally observed MFL patterns associated with dent shape as well as with the stress effects from the dent.     

脉冲涡流圆柱型探头参数的优化设计

介绍了脉冲涡流检测的工作原理。通过有限元对圆柱型探头不同参数的线圈周围磁场和被检试件中感生涡流的分布进行了仿真,得出了扁平型的激励线圈产生的磁通量能够有效地渗透到被检试件的内部,有利于系统检测灵敏度的提高。通过不同激励频率在试件中的涡流密度、渗透深度的分析,能够根据脉冲涡流检测对象,得到探头中所用的最佳工作频率,为脉冲涡流探头的实际检测奠定基础。     

涡流检测缺陷定量评估的研究

在涡流检测中实现缺陷定量评估具有重要意义。通常涡流检测是利用线圈阻抗变化来实现缺陷检测,分析受缺陷扰动的磁场量B的分布变化,比传统的涡流检测方法更有利于实现缺陷定量评估。利用有限元方法,对有裂纹的金属平板的空间磁场进行了数值仿真。仿真结果证实可通过分析磁场量B的变化来实现缺陷定量评估,并得到了缺陷的长度、深度与平板表面的磁场分量之间的量值关系。对平板裂纹的定量评估提供了理论上的依据。     

Inspection of defects in conductive multi-layered structures by an eddy current scanning technique: Simulation and experiments

The forward problem of eddy current detection of defects by scanning conductive multi-layered structures is investigated and the change of the probe coil impedance is modeled by using finite element analysis method. Based on the ANSYS software a fast simulating program is developed and then the coil impedance changes due to the existing of defects in different lengths, shapes and at different locations in conductive multi-layers are calculated. An experimental eddy current testing system combined with a scanner is established and scanning testing experiments are carried out. The simulation and experimental results are compared. The agreement of them shows that the technique studied is promising and can help us to understand the probe responses and can be applied to the inversion model to determine the defect parameters in many important fields ranging from aerospace to energy and transportation industries.     

Automatic measurement and warning of tension force reduction in a PT tendon using eddy current sensing

Post-tensioning (PT) using a bundle of pre-stressed strands is a critical process for assembling pre-fabricated and modularized bridge members. However, the tension force gradually diminishes over time due to such factors as corrosion, creep, and steel relaxation. Such changes compromise the overall safety of such structures. In this study, an eddy-current-based tension-force-loss warning (EC-TFLW) technique is proposed to detect and warn automatically of excessive loss of tension force in a PT tendon. A ring-type eddy-current sensor (ECS) is mounted on the outer surface of a wedge holding a tendon, and the level of eddy current measured by the ECS is related to the tension force of the tendon. The advantages of the proposed technique include: (1) low power consumption, (2) low cost, (3) simple installation, and (4) automated warning. The performance of the proposed EC-TFLW technique was validated experimentally in a full-scale lab test of a 3.3-m long, 15.2-mm diameter, mono-strand tendon that was tensioned using a universal testing machine (from 20 to 180 kN). Statistical hypothesis testing using the chi-square distribution was applied to the measured eddy current signals, and if the decline in tension exceeded a certain level, a warning was sent out automatically.     

Numerical modeling of general cracks from the viewpoint of eddy current simulations

This study discusses numerical modeling of fatigue and stress corrosion cracking in eddy current simulations. Ten fatigue crack specimens and another 10 stress corrosion crack specimens are prepared for this purpose. The specimens are made of type 316 stainless steel and measure 10 mm in thickness for a general evaluation of the model. Eddy current inspections of the specimens are performed using a differential type plus point probe; the specimens then undergo destructive tests to confirm the true profiles of the cracks. Subsequent numerical simulations are conducted to evaluate the equivalent conductivity and width of the cracks. The simulations demonstrate that a fatigue crack can be modeled as a non-conductive region, and it is not necessary to know exactly how wide the opening of a fatigue crack is. They also revealed, in contrast, that stress corrosion cracking needs to be modeled as a conductive region with a certain width.     

Searching for hidden cracks and estimations of their depths by using the database

This paper introduces measurements using eddy currents and the estimation of hidden crack dimensions. The measurements were made on the defect-free side of the aluminium plate. The dimensions of the excitation coil were investigated with the aim of optimizing the sensitivity of the measurements. Measured values were smoothed properly in order to ease further processing. Furthermore, the estimation of the crack dimensions was made using pre-calculated values obtained with a Finite Element Model. Measurements and tests were made for three different test plates with straight cracks and for one test plate with a crack that was not straight.     

Study and experimental validation of the calculation of the ECT signal induced by a minute crack using a FEM–BIM combination

A combination of the boundary integral (BIM) and finite element (FEM) methods is presented for the calculation of the signal induced by small cracks. This approach—by preserving the attractive properties of both methods—allows considering a large variety of probe structures while the computation time remains low, especially if the signal of a complete scan is calculated. To validate the calculation results, experiments are carried out using a large number of minute cracks. The good agreement obtained between the measured and calculated data shows the applicability of the presented method.     

含交错层叠电涡流传感器阵列的成像定位仪的研究

针对被遮盖的金属物体的可视化问题进行了研究探讨,采用交错层叠柔性电涡流传感器阵列替代线圈式电涡流传感器阵列,利用CCD摄像头拍摄遮盖物表面图像,实现金属物体与遮盖物表面的同步显示,并采用打印机将金属物体上螺纹孔中心位置标记在遮盖物表面相应位置。所研究的探测成像定位仪具有更高的定位精度,操作更简单,使用更方便。     

Difference in the detection limits of flaws in the depths of multi-layered and continuous aluminum plates using low-frequency eddy current testing

We examined the difference in the detection limits of flaws in the depths of multi-layered and continuous aluminum plates using low-frequency eddy current testing. The detection limits were measured by using a magneto-resistive sensor. Comparing the frequency of an applied magnetic field, the detection limit at 50 Hz is deeper than that at 1 kHz. Comparing the sample structure, the detection limit in the multi-layered samples is deeper than that in the continuous samples. These results are likely due to the differences in the skin depth and conductivity of the sample.     

数字图像相关法测量芯片焊点在均匀热载荷下的变形

采用数字图像相关法成功得到了芯片焊点(尺寸为φ0.8 mm)在均匀热载荷下的面内位移变形场的数字化结果.检测系统结合了长距离显微观测及图像采集系统、可控制加热恒温系统及照明系统等硬件,使数字图像相关测试进入到细观研究领域.在进行芯片焊点表面位移场的定量测量的同时,利用相同边界条件的有限元方法进行模拟计算,以进行结果的比较,两者吻合较好.试验结果证明了数字图像相关方法及设计的检测系统在微变形场测量上的准确性和稳定性.     

铁磁材料构件的应力分析和磁记忆检测

应用ANSYS软件对平板中心裂纹构件的应力状态进行有限元分析，不仅得出了符合J积分理论解的精度较高的分析结果，并且通过对加载构件表面漏磁场的测量，验证了应力集中与磁记忆效应之间的规律，进一步探讨了磁记忆检测在铁磁构件损伤预诊断中应用的可行性。     

Experiment and simulation study of 3D magnetic field sensing for magnetic flux leakage defect characterisation

Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) testing is widely used to detect and characterise defects in pipelines, rail tracks and other structures. The measurement of the two field components perpendicular to the test surface and parallel to the applied field in MFL systems is well established. However, it is rarely effective when the shapes of the specimens and defects with respect to the applied field are arbitrary. In order to overcome the pitfalls of traditional MFL measurement, measurement of the three-dimensional (3D) magnetic field is proposed. The study is undertaken using extensive finite element analysis (FEA) focussing on the 3D distribution of magnetic fields for defect characterisation and employing a high sensitivity 3-axis magnetic field sensor in experimental study. Several MFL tests were undertaken on steel samples, including a section of rail track. The experimental and FEA test results show that data from not only the x- and z-axes but also y-axis can give comprehensive positional information about defects in terms of shape and orientation, being especially advantageous where the defect is aligned close to parallel to the applied field. The work concludes that 3D magnetic field sensing could be used to improve the defect characterisation capabilities of existing MFL systems, especially where defects have irregular geometries.     

基于频谱分析的涡流探头工作频率确定方法及检测系统研究

涡流检测对某一被测量的检测灵敏度很大程度上依赖于试验频率。文章提出了一种基于频谱分析的涡流探头最佳试验频率获取方法,设计了数字化涡流阻抗检测系统。在该系统中,激励信号具备扫频输出和单频输出功能,探头检测信号拾取后数字化分解为实部和虚部。借助该系统,可方便、快捷、实时地获取每一探头的阻抗频谱,根据实际需要分析获得最佳试验频率。     

敫励参数和试件电磁参数对脉冲涡流检测影响的仿真分析

脉冲涡流检测技术已成功应用于带包覆层容器和管道壁厚检测。然而,由于铁磁性材料脉冲涡流检测机理的复杂性,目前缺乏对检测信号影响因素的有效分析方法。首先利用有限元仿真方法建立了脉冲涡流检测模型,并用试验验证了模型的正确性;然后研究了重复频率、占空比及边沿斜率等激励参数对检测信号的影响,为脉冲涡流检测激励模式的选择提供参考;最后分析了试件电磁参数对检测信号的影响,为脉冲涡流检测结果的解释提供依据。     

FEM study on the influence of air gap and specimen thickness on the detectability of flaw in the yoke method

The yoke method is usually used as a magnetic testing method of welds. In this paper, we study the influences of the air gap between the magnetic pole and the specimen surface on the average magnetic flux density passing through the specimen, and the specimen thickness on the leakage magnetic flux density from a flaw using finite element method (FEM). When the air gap increases the average magnetic flux density at the center of the specimen length decreases. We can estimate the intensity of the magnetic field on the specimen surface by extrapolating the magnetic flux density in space to that at lift-off being zero. Moreover, the maximum leakage magnetic flux density from a flaw decreases with increase in the specimen thickness even if the average magnetic flux density passing through the specimen is the same.