Water crisis in Africa: myth or reality?

Water is an issue that relates to all aspects of human development in Africa, including health, agriculture, education, economics, and even peace and stability. But the perception that Africa has perpetual water scarcity and is heading towards water crisis is challenged by a significant number of water professionals. Although most agree that Africa suffers from economic water scarcity, physical water scarcity could possibly be controlled with better water management. The large amount of international aid granted annually to Africa is a subject of criticism. This article examines the water crisis in Africa, whether it is a myth or reality, and reasons thereof, and suggests remedial measures.     

Hydrosolidarity and beyond: can ethics and equity find a place in today's water resource management?

The notion of hydrosolidarity has permeated international discourses on water management, but it has received little comprehensive review. This paper traces the intellectual origins of hydrosolidarity and it explores how the concept has been applied by water scholars, organizations and in global water venues, like World Water Forums. Evolving conceptions and meanings of hydrosolidarity are presented and its kinship to related, sometimes oppositional terms, untangled. In particular, it explores how hydrosolidarity has evolved to serve as a socio-ethical annex to integrated water resources management. The paper concludes by examining some critiques and addressing the potential of hydrosolidarity in water management.     

Is water security just? Concepts,tools and missing links

ABSTRACT

Both social and environmental justice overlap with water (in)security, but neither fully captures the nuances. This review extends a water justice framework by critiquing and further developing an existing environmental justice framework. Testing a reformulated understanding of water security through a case study reveals added insights derived from inclusion of scale and power dynamics.     

Landscape-scale modeling of water quality in Lake Superior and Lake Michigan watersheds: How useful are forest-based indicators?

The Great Lakes watersheds have an important influence on the water quality of the nearshore environment, therefore, watershed characteristics can be used to predict what will be observed in the streams. We used novel landscape information describing the forest cover change, along with forest census data and established land cover data to predict total phosphorus and turbidity in Great Lakes streams. In Lake Superior, we modeled increased phosphorus as a function of the increase in the proportion of persisting forest, forest disturbed during 2000–2009, and agricultural land, and we modeled increased turbidity as a function of the increase in the proportion of persisting forest, forest disturbed during 2000–2009, agricultural land, and urban land. In Lake Michigan, we modeled increased phosphorus as a function of ecoregion, decrease in the proportion of forest disturbed during 1984–1999 and watershed storage, and increase in the proportion of urban land, and we modeled increased turbidity as a function of ecoregion, increase in the proportion of forest disturbed during 2000–2009, and decrease in the proportion softwood forest. We used these relationships to identify priority areas for restoration in the Lake Superior basin in the southwestern watersheds, and in west central and southwest watersheds of the Lake Michigan basin. We then used the models to estimate water quality in watersheds without observed instream data to prioritize those areas for management. Prioritizing watersheds will aid effective management of the Great Lakes watershed and result in efficient use of restoration funds, which will lead to improved nearshore water quality.     

Non-water factors in water governance and their implications for water sustainability: The case of Ontario’s water use reduction policy

Despite longstanding interest in reducing water use in Ontario, Canada’s most populous province, public policy responses have tended to be restricted to the water sector’s traditional remit, e.g., improving public access to water data. However, it is not clear that these type of measures will be enough to address concerns over water quantity and advance water sustainability, as they are tied to other socio-economic concerns, external to the water sector. The purpose of this study is to understand the range of external factors that influenced the development and implementation of the water use reduction (WUR) policy in Ontario, and to identify opportunities for harnessing these factors to advance WUR objectives. To do so, we propose a diagnostic framework that maps external factors in relation to a specific water governance situation. We carried out 13 semi-structured interviews and reviewed 56 documents. We combined deductive and inductive approaches to content analysis. We found many non-water factors influencing the governance of WUR in Ontario. Particularly, the economic development provincial objective strongly shaped Ontario’s WUR policy by influencing the adoption of a demand management approach centering on water efficiency, rather than conservation. Furthermore, the WUR policy primarily serves the economic development objective. An implication is that water policies can be used instrumentally, raising the question of what constitutes a “water policy”. In summary, this study argues that non-water factors can thus influence our path to water sustainability, in this case represented by the water conservation approach, by defining an enabling (or hindering), institutional framework.     

The human right to water and foreign investment: friends or foes?

States have a duty to respect, protect and fulfil the human right to water. Water-related foreign investment, governed by international investment agreements (IIAs) that do not yet incorporate human rights provisions, can have both positive and negative impacts on human rights. It is argued here that the right to water could be used as an argument to justify measures taken against water-related investments in disputes between host states and foreign investors. While arbitral tribunals have not yet accepted this argument, it might be accepted in the near future as IIAs incorporate human rights provisions.     

Proposing a solution to India’s water crisis: ‘paradigm shift’ or pushing outdated concepts?

Abstract

This article is a critique of the report of the committee chaired by Dr Mihir Shah on restructuring the Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board of India. It shows that the recommendations of the committee are not based on any sound understanding of the federal nature of water administration in India, water-sector performance or the problems confronting it. The ‘paradigm shift’ in the suggested approach to water management is based on flawed analysis of the performance of surface irrigation systems and outdated concepts of irrigation efficiency, and reflects the professional bias of its members against large water infrastructure and wishful thinking about what schemes like aquifer mapping can achieve.     

Towards a water–energy–food nexus policy: realizing the blue and green virtual water of agriculture in Jordan

Virtual water is an important addendum to how we view a country's water resources. This study examines the virtual water embedded in Jordan's agricultural produce and its impact on future water–energy–food policies. Blue and green virtual waters are calculated from data on rainfall, crop patterns, yields, and water requirements at the district level. Results highlight the advantages of blue water usage in the Jordan Valley and of harnessing more available green water in the Highlands, with both displaying low energy impact. Results also emphasize the high groundwater usage and energy footprint in the Desert regions, signalling a need to rein in groundwater extraction and take advantage of solar power.     

Hierarchical MnO? nanostructures: synthesis and their application in water treatment

Hierarchical MnO? nanostructures were prepared through the reaction between KMnO? and oleic acid at room temperature in the surfactant-free microemulsion system. The obtained samples were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, N? adsorption, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The results indicated that the flowerlike nanospheres were three-dimensional (3D) porous microstructures consisting of nanoplates. The surface area of the sample was 171.5 m(2)/g and the distribution of pore diameter lay within the range of 5-15 nm. The prepared hierarchically structured MnO? showed excellent adsorption capacity and rapid adsorption rate for methylene blue ions in water. The maximum adsorption capacity of methylene blue was as high as 273.9 mg/g and 97.5% of the dye was removed within initial 5 min of contact time. Compared with other adsorbents, the synthesized hierarchical MnO? nanostructures displayed a faster adsorption rate and higher adsorption capacity, which implied potential application for removing dye pollutants from waste water.     

Virtual Water in Global Food and Water Policy Making: Is There a Need for Rethinking?

The argument that economies that face acute water scarcity problems can and should meet their water demand for food through cereal imports from water-rich countries; and that virtual water trade can be used to achieve water securities has become dominant in global water discussions. Analysis of country level data on renewable freshwater availability and net virtual water trade of 146 nations across the world shows that a country's virtual water trade is not determined by its water situation. Some countries have the advantage of high “economic efficiency” in food production and have surplus water, but resort to food import, whereas some water scarce countries achieve high virtual water trade balances. Further analysis with a set of 131 countries showed that virtual water trade increased with increase in gross cropped area. This is because of two reasons: First, when access to arable land increases, the ability to utilize available blue water for irrigation increases. Second, increasing access to arable land improves the access to water held in the soil profile as “free good”, a factor not taken into account in assessing water availability. Hence, many of the humid, water-rich countries will not be in a position to produce surplus food and feed the water scarce nations; and virtual water often flows out of water-poor, land rich countries to land-poor water-rich countries. This means that “distribution of scarcity” and “global water use efficiency”, are goals that are difficult to achieve through virtual water trade in a practical sense. For a water-poor, but land rich country, virtual water import offer little scope as a sound water management strategy as what is often achieved through virtual water trade is improved “global land use efficiency”. The important policy inferences emerging from the analyses are two: First, assessing the food security challenges posed to nations in future purely from a water resource perspective provides a distorted view of the food security scenario. National policies on food security should take into account “access to arable land” apart from water availability. Second, analysis of water challenges posed by nations purely from the point of view of renewable water availability and aggregate demands will be dangerous. Access to water in the soil profile, which is determined by access to arable land, would be an important determinant of effective water availability.     

Water distribution systems and on-farm irrigation practices: limitations and consequences for Afghanistan’s agricultural productivity

The absence of a reliable water supply to farmers is the single most important impediment to food security and agricultural expansion in Afghanistan. Agricultural water supply and distribution systems are reviewed, and a pragmatic strategy is outlined to increase water capital and to better utilize available water. The development and dissemination of on-farm practices that improve water management through community-based approaches represent the best opportunity for improving farmer livelihoods, maintaining social stability and developing a sound agriculture-based economy in the immediate future, independent of the success or failure of national water policies.     

‘Integrated’ approaches to water and natural resources management in South Australia

In the context of criticism that the definition and scope of integrated water resources management have not been clearly defined, experience in South Australia from the early 1970s to 2014 related to a holistic and integrated approach to water and natural resources management is examined. Three different approaches have been used in South Australia, each striving to be more holistic and integrated than its predecessor. A key challenge for managers is to achieve efficient and effective implementation of related policies, programmes and plans as more aspects become incorporated into a holistic and integrated approach. A main conclusion is that to successfully implement a holistic and integrated approach it is essential to be clear what ‘integrated’ and ‘holistic’ mean, because they are not the same or interchangeable. Furthermore, integrated and focused approaches are not mutually exclusive, and can be pursued simultaneously. This conclusion questions the argument that an integrated approach inevitably leads to so many variables being considered that it becomes so complex, unwieldy and cumbersome that it leads to non-actionable initiatives.     

Direct Management or Inter-Municipal Cooperation in Smaller Municipalities? Exploring Cost Efficiency and Installed Capacity in Drinking Water Supply

Water Resources Management - The aim of this study is to determine whether, in small municipalities, drinking water services are supplied more efficiently under direct public provision or through...     

Trade in Virtual Water: Do Property Rights Matter?

This paper examines the determinants of virtual water trade – embodied in agricultural products – and tests the relationship between property rights and the export of water-intensive products. Using two different measures of property rights protection, I show that countries with weaker property rights have an apparent comparative advantage in the export of water-intensive products. After controlling for economic size, natural resource endowments and bilateral trade determinants, the trade flow of virtual water is negatively and significantly correlated with the property rights index of the exporting country. The results are robust across different estimation methods.     

Ownership and Performance in Water Services Revisited: Does Private Management Really Outperform Public?

Since the late 1970s, water services have been privatised in some developed countries in an attempt to improve performance. However, after three decades of privatisations the superiority of private management is being called into question and several cities are returning to public provision. In this paper we revisit the relationship between ownership and performance in urban water services management using directional distance functions, metafrontiers and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) techniques. The technical efficiency in the provision of water delivery services in a sample of Spanish municipalities is assessed at the level of the management of specific production factors; moreover, we discuss whether differences in efficiency between private and public decision units are due to either different capabilities of managers (managerial efficiency) or different technological restrictions (ownership efficiency). Our main finding is that private management is more efficient in the use of labour input, mainly because of the technological restrictions faced by public management units, such as legal and institutional restrictions. Conversely, private management appears to be less efficient at managing operational costs.     

The water–food–energy nexus: an introduction to nexus concepts and some conceptual and operational problems

This introduction sets the scene for the special issue compiled by Martin Keulertz, Eckart Woertz and Tony Allan.     

Policy options for promoting urban–rural cooperation in water management: a review

As most cities share their water basins with rural areas, an efficient and environmentally sensible urban water management system needs to consider the interplay between urban and rural water uses. This article analyses the three main challenges at this interface: increased competition for water resources (scarcity); flood management (abundance); and freshwater quality conservation (pollution). The merit of potential policy options is discussed from an economics perspective, taking examples from successful experiences in cities around the world. The benefits and challenges arising from enhanced coordination and integration between urban and rural water management are highlighted.     

Integrated water resources management: lost on the road from ambition to realisation?

The recognition that water plays a central role in industrial, agricultural, economic, social and cultural development has, over the past half century, led to the development of strategic management approaches based on the concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM). This paper assesses the extent to which IWRM theory has been converted into practice and identifies existing "research gaps". We set out our arguments as a critique of IWRM; describing its basic tenets, exploring its value as a conceptual tool, considering its scientific pedigree, questioning its novelty as a resource management paradigm, and suggesting ways of translating the theory into more widespread practice. Finally, we argue that whilst models in their broadest sense can make a significant contribution to IWRM research and practice, a revised assessment of the source of their value is required.     

Hydrology,management and rising water vulnerability in the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna River basin

A water vulnerability analysis is made of how sensitivity characteristics of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) River basin may affect adaptive capacity. A co-riparian ‘country perspective’ highlights the importance of local level management actions. Results reveal that vulnerabilities in India and Bangladesh stem from hydrological and ecological factors, but are more linked to poverty and underdevelopment in Nepal. Poor political governance and underinvestment in the water sector add to vulnerability in Bangladesh and Nepal. Overall, Bangladesh is the most sensitive country while Nepal has the least capacity to adapt.