The impact of water users’ associations on the productivity of irrigated agriculture in Pakistani Punjab

This paper finds productivity-enhancing effects of watercourse-level water users’ associations for farms at the tail of a watercourse and for those that rely exclusively on groundwater – two groups that are marginalized from surface water use and more likely to rely increasingly on groundwater. Yet, heavy reliance on groundwater consumes vast energy resources and leads to environmental degradation through overdraft and groundwater salinization. Improving the management of surface water through functioning watercourse-level institutions can increase use efficiency across water, energy and land resources through increasing agricultural productivity of those now least able to access fresh surface water resources.     

A holistic water balance of Austria - how does the quantitative proportion of urban water requirements relate to other users?

Traditional water use statistics only include the blue water withdrawal/consumption of municipalities, industry and irrigated agriculture. When, however, green water use of the agricultural sector is included as well as the virtual water use/water footprint (WF), water use quantity statistics become very different. In common water use statistics, Austria withdraws in total about 2.5 km(3) per year, only 3% of available resources (total discharge 81.4 km(3) = surface and ground water). The total water consumption (0.5 km(3)) is less than 1% of available resources. Urban (municipal) water requirements account for 27% of total withdrawal or 33% of consumption. When agricultural green water use (cropland) is included in statistics, the fraction of municipal water requirements diminishes to 7.6% of total withdrawal and 2.5% of total consumption. If the evapotranspiration of grassland and alpine meadows is also included in agricultural green water use, this fraction decreases to 3.2% and 0.9% respectively. When the WF is assessed as base value for water use in Austria, the municipal water use represents 5.8% of this value. In this globalized world, these traditional water use statistics are no longer recommendable. Only a holistic water balance approach really represents water use statistics.     

Non-water factors in water governance and their implications for water sustainability: The case of Ontario’s water use reduction policy

Despite longstanding interest in reducing water use in Ontario, Canada’s most populous province, public policy responses have tended to be restricted to the water sector’s traditional remit, e.g., improving public access to water data. However, it is not clear that these type of measures will be enough to address concerns over water quantity and advance water sustainability, as they are tied to other socio-economic concerns, external to the water sector. The purpose of this study is to understand the range of external factors that influenced the development and implementation of the water use reduction (WUR) policy in Ontario, and to identify opportunities for harnessing these factors to advance WUR objectives. To do so, we propose a diagnostic framework that maps external factors in relation to a specific water governance situation. We carried out 13 semi-structured interviews and reviewed 56 documents. We combined deductive and inductive approaches to content analysis. We found many non-water factors influencing the governance of WUR in Ontario. Particularly, the economic development provincial objective strongly shaped Ontario’s WUR policy by influencing the adoption of a demand management approach centering on water efficiency, rather than conservation. Furthermore, the WUR policy primarily serves the economic development objective. An implication is that water policies can be used instrumentally, raising the question of what constitutes a “water policy”. In summary, this study argues that non-water factors can thus influence our path to water sustainability, in this case represented by the water conservation approach, by defining an enabling (or hindering), institutional framework.     

The water–energy nexus: energy use for water supply in China

China’s strategy to meet increasing water demand is to increase the use of inter-basin transfer water and unconventional water. This study evaluates the energy requirements of this strategy by disaggregating and quantifying the regional energy use for water supply in 2020 and 2030; the energy use in 2014 is calculated to represent the present situation. We find that the energy use for water supply in 2014 amounted to 81 billion kWh. This value is expected increase to 90 and 109 billion kWh by 2020 and 2030, respectively. In 2030, the urban domestic sector will overtake the agricultural sector as the most energy-intensive sector, with major contribution from inter-basin transfer water.     

What is the extent of water brownification in Lake Onego,Russia?

In the past 26 years the transport of allochthonous matter into Lake Onego has increased. Water brownification in Petrozavodsk Bay, a northwestern bay in Lake Onego, and in the Shuya River, a tributary of the bay, was shown earlier to begin in spring. The goal of this paper was to find out whether brownification spreads from Petrozavodsk Bay to the central part of the lake in summer. Spearman’s correlation coefficient and linear correlation coefficient confirm a significant (p < 0.05) increase in water color in Petrozavodsk Bay in the summers of 1992–2018. A tendency for increasing water color was found in the Central Onego’s epilimnion. Total iron and CO₂ concentrations in the epilimnion have increased and pH values have decreased both in Petrozavodsk Bay and in the Central Onego. In the Central Onego’s hypolimnion, only total iron and CO₂ concentrations have considerably increased. However, the present lake ecosystem is resistant to the increased effect of allochthonous matter due to long water renewal time and self-purification. In spite of a significant increase in CO₂ concentration in the lake water, the bicarbonate buffer system maintains the acid-base equilibrium and the changes revealed are not considered critical for the ecosystem.     

How does water information flow? Intersectionality in water information networks in a rural Ugandan community

This article presents evidence of a Ugandan community’s information network related to water services and argues that an intersectional perspective is key to understanding information exclusion processes. Using questionnaire data and social network analysis, the article compares access to water information channels by gender and education level. While men primarily share information with other men, women mainly exchange water information along educational lines. Less-educated women are least likely to receive information from other gender-education groups. Women are also underrepresented in the network of local government officials and consequently lack bridging ties, remaining more dependent on informal information channels.     

The water framework directive -can we reach the target?

The WFD is an overarching piece of legislation that aims to harmonize existing European water policy; since 2000 it requires managing the river basins so that the quality and quantity of water does not affect the ecological services and to promote sustainable water use of any specific water body. Nevertheless the goals of other directives, such as drinking water, bathing water and urban wastewater treatment (UWWT), are not yet harmonised mainly concerning microbiological and PS/PSR/PHS contamination. Great challenges are due to emerging contaminants especially the technical improvement and harmonisation for risk identification and risk assessment: for biological effects and for chemical analysis and, finally integrate this knowledge to preserve the "good status". The methodologies implemented have as aim the identification of acceptable or unacceptable risks. This identification provides the basis for the regulatory decisions, which follow from the risk assessment. After priority setting the UWWT needs to be adjusted and existing or new treatment options should comply with the requirements of the different directives. This will be another step on the way to reach the targets given in EU water legislation and in the achievements of millennium development goals.     

Exporting water from the desert? An analysis of the virtual water content of Saudi Arabian agricultural exports

This study applies input-output analysis to evaluate and trace Saudi Arabia’s virtual water exports arising from exports of agricultural products. Saudi Arabia’s total virtual exports in 2011 were around 2.42 km³, mainly to neighbouring Arab countries. This amount is enough to meet the water demand of the country’s entire population. Agricultural exports seem economically beneficial only because they rely on groundwater; however, since the indirect cost of desalinating equivalent amounts of water for domestic purposes is much higher, a better strategy would have been to direct those water resources towards domestic needs.     

Mixing of Rhône River water in Lake Geneva: Seasonal tracing using stable isotope composition of water

Determining the path of river intrusions into lakes is essential, both for a better understanding of the lake circulation as well as the nutrient transport and the distribution of pollutants introduced by the rivers. The objective of this study is to understand the mixing of Rhône River water within Lake Geneva. The stable H- and O-isotope composition of water for this alpine lake has been shown to be a powerful tool to trace the Rhône River intrusion within the lake, but the details of this interflow and how it changes in space and time have not been well established yet. The present study focusses on using the isotopic tracer method in detailed cross-sections sampled at different times during the year as a tool to determine how the interflow changes with time. Different sampled cross-sections present large spatiotemporal heterogeneities of the Rhône River water dispersion. During summer and early autumn, when the lake is thermally stratified, the Rhône River is intruding into the metalimnion as an interflow, and it is directed by the currents in the top layer. The stronger the thermal stratification, the more concentrated and vertically constrained will also be the Rhône interflow. Vertical and horizontal displacements of the interflow are controlled by wind-induced internal waves and the gyres within the lake established as a function of wind strengths and directions.     

Patterns of long-term dynamics of aquatic communities and water quality parameters in the Great Lakes: Are they synchronized?

Long time series data can provide insights into dynamics of large lakes. We use the USEPA-GLNPO biological monitoring dataset (phytoplankton, benthos, zooplankton and water quality), collected from 1996 through 2016, to identify whether there is evidence of concordant linear or non-linear trends in community composition, density/biomass/biovolume and major environmental parameters. We show changes in biotic assemblages and water quality variables, particularly in Lakes Michigan and Huron. These include changes in phytoplankton biovolume and zooplankton biomass, increasing invasive Dreissena abundance and decreasing densities of other benthos. Biotic changes are accompanied by pronounced changes in water quality and nutrient ratios. Species change-points, identified using threshold indicator taxon analysis, are often less abrupt, but there are clear shifts in a large proportion of species in each assemblage. The concordance of breakpoints among assemblages or lack thereof provides valuable insight into potential drivers of ecosystem change.     

The human right to water and foreign investment: friends or foes?

States have a duty to respect, protect and fulfil the human right to water. Water-related foreign investment, governed by international investment agreements (IIAs) that do not yet incorporate human rights provisions, can have both positive and negative impacts on human rights. It is argued here that the right to water could be used as an argument to justify measures taken against water-related investments in disputes between host states and foreign investors. While arbitral tribunals have not yet accepted this argument, it might be accepted in the near future as IIAs incorporate human rights provisions.     

Tourism as tragedy? Common problems with water in post-revolutionary Nicaragua

This paper examines the increased demand placed on limited water resources by a rapidly growing tourism sector in Playa Gigante, Nicaragua. Results from field campaigns suggest that recharge of the local aquifer may not meet burgeoning tourism demands for water. This paper also points to initial conflicts over water between locals and tourism operations, which are further complicated by ineffective implementation of national water policies and the common pool nature of groundwater. The conclusion discusses the need for more extensive research and better implementation of water policy through community governance and collaboration.     

Water productivity and water footprint: misguided concepts or useful tools in water management and policy?

Water productivity (WP) and water footprint (WFP) are popular concepts in research and discourses on water management. Yet there are concerns about their theoretical validity and practical value. This paper shows that the water production function, the concept with a sound theoretical foundation, is the basis for WP. Total WFP is the reciprocal of WP. The practical value of WP and WFP depends on the context of water use and stress. Maximizing WP, not a panacea to all water problems, mainly suits arid rainfed areas. In other regions, economic and marginal WP for increasing overall production should take precedence in water management and policy decisions.     

Hierarchical MnO? nanostructures: synthesis and their application in water treatment

Hierarchical MnO? nanostructures were prepared through the reaction between KMnO? and oleic acid at room temperature in the surfactant-free microemulsion system. The obtained samples were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, N? adsorption, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The results indicated that the flowerlike nanospheres were three-dimensional (3D) porous microstructures consisting of nanoplates. The surface area of the sample was 171.5 m(2)/g and the distribution of pore diameter lay within the range of 5-15 nm. The prepared hierarchically structured MnO? showed excellent adsorption capacity and rapid adsorption rate for methylene blue ions in water. The maximum adsorption capacity of methylene blue was as high as 273.9 mg/g and 97.5% of the dye was removed within initial 5 min of contact time. Compared with other adsorbents, the synthesized hierarchical MnO? nanostructures displayed a faster adsorption rate and higher adsorption capacity, which implied potential application for removing dye pollutants from waste water.     

How could water markets like Australia’s work in China?

What hurdles lie in the path of the Chinese government’s plan to introduce water trading? This question is addressed by reviewing lessons from establishing water markets in Australia, and then assessing an early scheme to create them in China. In Australia, markets in water opened up over several decades, with gradual recognition of what was needed to avoid negative third-party effects. Trading there is now crucial: in drought years nearly half the water used by farmers is traded. Australia’s experience throws light on the key requirements for a water market – though markets in China will, naturally, be fashioned to suit its own conditions. The pilot work by Tsinghua University in Gansu Province has led the way in having trading at the local level in China. Compared with Australia, however, rights are not as tradeable, metering is poor, and plots are tiny. Trading has mostly been by water user associations, made up of several hundred farmers, but this dampens the incentives that make markets effective – and can upset individual farmers. Possible ways past these hurdles are discussed.     

Landscape-scale modeling of water quality in Lake Superior and Lake Michigan watersheds: How useful are forest-based indicators?

The Great Lakes watersheds have an important influence on the water quality of the nearshore environment, therefore, watershed characteristics can be used to predict what will be observed in the streams. We used novel landscape information describing the forest cover change, along with forest census data and established land cover data to predict total phosphorus and turbidity in Great Lakes streams. In Lake Superior, we modeled increased phosphorus as a function of the increase in the proportion of persisting forest, forest disturbed during 2000–2009, and agricultural land, and we modeled increased turbidity as a function of the increase in the proportion of persisting forest, forest disturbed during 2000–2009, agricultural land, and urban land. In Lake Michigan, we modeled increased phosphorus as a function of ecoregion, decrease in the proportion of forest disturbed during 1984–1999 and watershed storage, and increase in the proportion of urban land, and we modeled increased turbidity as a function of ecoregion, increase in the proportion of forest disturbed during 2000–2009, and decrease in the proportion softwood forest. We used these relationships to identify priority areas for restoration in the Lake Superior basin in the southwestern watersheds, and in west central and southwest watersheds of the Lake Michigan basin. We then used the models to estimate water quality in watersheds without observed instream data to prioritize those areas for management. Prioritizing watersheds will aid effective management of the Great Lakes watershed and result in efficient use of restoration funds, which will lead to improved nearshore water quality.     

Public–private partnerships for water in Asia: a review of two decades of experience

This article reviews the development of public–private partnerships (PPP) in water services in Asia over the last two decades and situates the Asian experience within the wider global context. Through a comparative analysis of PPP data from two different sources, the article highlights the critical issue of how ‘private’ is defined in understanding the extent of PPP in Asia, due to the important role played by enterprises under mixed public and private ownership. The article identifies cyclical patterns of development of PPP in the water sector across countries and the use of hybrid contractual and institutional arrangements for PPPs.     

Can water level stations be used for thermal assessment in aquatic ecosystem?

Many studies focus on stream water temperature (WT) because it is considered a key ecological factor. However, few of them have investigated the use of WT data from water level monitoring networks, which often measure WT as ancillary data. Our study was conducted in southern Belgium at a high temporal resolution with continuous data recorded at intervals of 10 min between 2012 and 2016 and large spatial scale greater than 16,000 km². This study aimed to assess whether a regional water level network (140 stations) is reliable for continuous WT monitoring based on a Bland–Altman analysis with WT collected through a European monitoring network (Water Framework Directive). This study also investigates whether WT data acquired by water level stations can be used to perform both state‐of‐the‐art visualization of thermal regimes and spatio‐temporal queries for specific ecological monitoring. We found that the water level stations were reliable tools in recording continuous WT in the streams of the study area. The temperature difference between the two WT monitoring networks was ?0.57°C on average. Our positive results promote the use of WT from water level stations in order to globally characterize the thermal regime of streams as well as to provide spatial or temporal information on this regime at high frequencies. As an example, our data showed the effectiveness for brown trout (Salmo trutta fario L.) in spatializing thermal risk areas related to the thermal requirement of this fish species; in 2015, 19% of stations located in brown trout fish zone recorded temperatures above 25°C.     

State-of-the-art review of transboundary water governance in the Euphrates–Tigris river basin

This article reviews the state of the art of transboundary water governance in the Euphrates–Tigris river basin, which is characterized by both political confrontation and cooperative institutional development. First, research on the physical characteristics of the basin is presented, with references to the literature on large-scale water development projects that underpin transboundary water interactions. Then, contending approaches to transboundary water governance are discussed, with specific references to the evolution of institutions. Finally, bearing in mind that transboundary water governance in the basin occurs in volatile political circumstances, current issues such as control of the water infrastructure by non-state violent actors and protection of water during armed conflict are scrutinized.