Socioeconomic Value(s) of Restoring Environmental Flows: Systematic Review and Guidance for Assessment

The preservation of instream flows entails multiple benefits not only for river ecosystems but also for human well‐being. Benefits of marketed goods and services provided by water withdrawals such as irrigation, water supply and hydropower production are well‐known. Others, such as recreational, aesthetic, cultural and existence values of a well‐preserved river flows are less studied. There is an increasing interest of policy makers to understand the benefits of costly river ecosystem restoration measures. Moreover, disregarding such benefits may turn into inter‐stakeholder conflicts. This paper reviews empirically‐based literature assessing environmental flows restoration/conservation. Thus, it offers the state‐of‐the‐art on three aspects: 1) what motivations drive the socioeconomic evaluation of instream flows (policies and alternative instream flow regimes); 2) what values and benefits are associated with instream flows (e.g. the sheer existence of a well‐preserved river, productive assets and cultural attributes); and 3) what methods are employed to undertake such assessments (e.g. scenario development, monetary and non‐monetary valuations, and stakeholders engagement). Building on this, we propose a methodological framework for case‐specific assessments of the restoration of environmental flows. This proposal combines increased stakeholder participation, better understanding of ecosystem functioning, awareness of the plurality of values and an accurate choice of valuation methods. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stream Flow Forecasting of Poorly Gauged Mountainous Watershed by Least Square Support Vector Machine,Fuzzy Genetic Algorithm and M5 Model Tree Using Climatic Data from Nearby Station

Forecasting stream flow is a very importance issue in water resources planning and management. The ability of three soft computing methods, least square support vector machine (LSSVM), fuzzy genetic algorithm (FGA) and M5 model tree (M5T), in forecasting daily and monthly stream flows of poorly gauged mountainous watershed using nearby hydro-meteorological data is investigated in the current study. In the first application, monthly stream flows of Hunza river are forecasted using local stream flow data of Hunza and precipitation and temperature data of nearby station. LSSVM provides slightly better forecasts than the FGA and M5T models. Stream flow and temperature inputs generally give better forecasts compared to other inputs. In the second application, daily stream flows of Hunza river are forecasted using local stream flow data of Hunza and precipitation and temperature data of nearby station. Better results are obtained from the models comprising only stream flow inputs. In general, a better accuracy is obtained from LSSVM models in relative to the FGA and M5T. The results indicate that the monthly and daily stream flows of Hunza can be accurately forecasted by using only nearby climatic data. In the third application, daily stream flows of Hunza river are forecasted using local stream flow and climatic data and the models’ accuracy is slightly increased in relative to the previous applications. LSSVM generally performs superior to the FGA and M5T in forecasting daily stream flow of Hunza river using local stream flow and climatic inputs.     

River water temperatures are higher during lower flows after accounting for meteorological variability

River water temperature is known to be important for water quality and ecosystem processes. We quantified the degree to which lower river flows are associated with warmer river water, after accounting for seasonality and meteorological variability. We applied a systematic methodology to analyse observed mean daily river water temperature and mean daily river flow from 47 sites draining mountain, hill, and lowland catchments across the Canterbury region of Aotearoa New Zealand. We fitted regression models to remove seasonal patterns from all variables, then removed correlations between water temperature and each of three meteorological variables (solar radiation, air temperature, and earth temperature) before quantifying water temperature-river flow relationships. Strong seasonal patterns were present in water temperature and each meteorological variable across all sites. Many sites also showed strong seasonal patterns in river flows. We demonstrated that seasonal patterns must be accounted for before day-to-day associations between water temperature and meteorological variables or river flow can be characterised. Higher water temperatures were associated with lower flows for 46 of 47 sites, even after having accounted for seasonality and associations with each meteorological variable. Increases in water temperature associated with a hypothetical reduction in river flow from the median to the fifth percentile varied with the site but were 0.5°C on average. This finding has important implications for river flow management because it indicates that increased river water temperatures would accompany reduced river flows regardless of site or catchment characteristics.     

一维圣维南方程组在非恒定流计算中的应用

天然情况下，河道水流在某河段内可能是恒定流，亦可能是非恒定流。一般地，山区性河流多视为恒定流，但在河道干支流的汇合口、河道与湖泊的交汇处、以及潮汐河段等处的水流常常为非恒定流。对于非恒定流， 用常规的水文学方法难以分析计算出河道水流的各个水文特征值，圣维南方程组则是解决此类问题的途径之一。运用圣维南方程组建立一维数学模型，应用芙蓉江江口水文站、长江徐六烃水文站实测水文资料进行分析验算，对解决非恒定流方面的一些实际的水文问题进行初步分析和探讨。     

IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS IN COMPLEX WATER RESOURCES SYSTEMS – CASE STUDY: THE DUERO RIVER BASIN,SPAIN

European river basin authorities are responsible for the implementation of the new river basin management plans in accordance with the European Water Framework Directive. This paper presents a new methodology framework and approach to define and evaluate environmental flow regimes in the realistic complexities that exist with multiple water resource needs at a basin scale. This approach links river basin simulation models and habitat time series analysis to generate ranges of environmental flows (e‐flows), which are evaluated by using habitat, hydropower production and reliability of water supply criteria to produce best possible alternatives. With the use of these tools, the effects of the proposed e‐flows have been assessed to help in the consultation process. The possible effects analysed are impacts on water supply reliability, hydropower production and aquatic habitat. After public agreements, a heuristic optimization process was applied to maximize e‐flows and habitat indicators, while maintaining a legal level of reliability for water resource demands. The final optimal e‐flows were considered for the river basin management plans of the Duero river basin. This paper demonstrates the importance of considering quantitative hydrologic and ecological aspects of e‐flows at the basin scale in addressing complex water resource systems. This approach merges standard methods such as physical habitat simulations and time series analyses for evaluating alternatives, with recent methods to simulate and optimize water management alternatives in river networks. It can be integrated with or used to complement other frameworks for e‐flow assessments such as the In‐stream Flow Incremental Methodology and Ecological Limits of Hydrologic Alteration. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

倒虹吸工程河段洪水与河床变形的数值模拟

本文利用平面二维水沙数学模型，采用水边界全区自动跟踪方法并考虑了河床局部冲刷与河道演变分析成果，对渠河交叉工程河段进行了洪水与河床变形的数值模拟。     

Simplified Monthly Hydrology and Irrigation Water Use Model to Explore Sustainable Water Management Options in the Murray-Darling Basin

We aimed to provide whole-of-basin simulations of flows and diversions in the Murray-Darling Basin for economic and policy analysis. We describe a model based on a subdivision of the basin into 58 catchments. In each catchment, the monthly runoff, river flow and irrigation demand are modelled as lumped processes. This is the first single model of the whole of the Murray-Darling Basin. The model was calibrated using monthly flow and annual diversion records, both by trial and error and using an automated method. We use the model to examine the impact on the flow and diversions in the Murray-Darling Basin of proposed diversion reductions and climate change. The diversion reductions return water to the environment, increasing river flows below the main irrigation areas. However, a middle-of-the-range climate change projection may result in a 13 % decrease in total flows in 2030, which offsets the enhancement to flows gained by diversion reductions.     

三峡大坝至葛洲坝两坝间河段通航水流条件

采用水流数学模型对三峡大坝至葛洲坝两坝间河段的通航水流条件进行研究,结果表明,枯水期日调节条件下两坝间河段的水面比降和流速变化均不影响本河段万吨级船队的航行条件。洪水期间大流量条件下两坝间航道水流条件十分复杂,在葛洲坝坝前水位为66.00 m、流量大于30 000 m3/s时,两坝间的水流条件不能满足现状条件下万吨级船队的通航;随着流量的增加,通航卡口段也随之增加,主要位于水田角、喜滩上下、石牌、偏脑等局部河段。研究成果可为两坝间航线选择与航道治理提供参考。     

Ecological perspectives on regulation and water allocation for the Ord River,Western Australia

Water management agencies throughout Australia are attempting to find a balance between the water requirements of ecological and socio‐economic environments as part of a holistic approach to managing flow‐dependent river ecosystems. Environmental water provisions are under consideration for the Ord River in far northern Western Australia. This river has been regulated for irrigation and there are plans for substantial expansion. Like other semi‐arid and tropical rivers, however, the hydrology of the Ord River is highly variable and unpredictable, and therefore, proportionate water release strategies for the environment that are based on average monthly flows are unsuitable. Regulation continues to produce pronounced ecological changes throughout the river system as the impacts of flow regime are negated. There is a dichotomy in optimal flow regimes for the contrasting management aspirations of ecological restoration based on low seasonal flows, and the dilution flows required for the drainage of agricultural effluent. Whilst current agricultural land and water management practices continue, the two cannot coincide, and consequently, a decision should be made regarding which environmental water allocation holds the primary value. Such a decision would guide the appropriate dry season flow regime on the lower Ord River. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A collaborative and adaptive process for developing environmental flow recommendations

Many river restoration projects are focusing on restoring environmental flow regimes to improve ecosystem health in rivers that have been developed for water supply, hydropower generation, flood control, navigation, and other purposes. In efforts to prevent future ecological damage, water supply planners in some parts of the world are beginning to address the water needs of river ecosystems proactively by reserving some portion of river flows for ecosystem support. These restorative and protective actions require development of scientifically credible estimates of environmental flow needs. This paper describes an adaptive, inter‐disciplinary, science‐based process for developing environmental flow recommendations. It has been designed for use in a variety of water management activities, including flow restoration projects, and can be tailored according to available time and resources for determining environmental flow needs. The five‐step process includes: (1) an orientation meeting; (2) a literature review and summary of existing knowledge about flow‐dependent biota and ecological processes of concern; (3) a workshop to develop ecological objectives and initial flow recommendations, and identify key information gaps; (4) implementation of the flow recommendations on a trial basis to test hypotheses and reduce uncertainties; and (5) monitoring system response and conducting further research as warranted. A range of recommended flows are developed for the low flows in each month, high flow pulses throughout the year, and floods with targeted inter‐annual frequencies. We describe an application of this process to the Savannah River, in which the resultant flow recommendations were incorporated into a comprehensive river basin planning process conducted by the Corps of Engineers, and used to initiate the adaptive management of Thurmond Dam. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Monitoring of environmental flow outcomes in a large river basin: The Commonwealth Environmental Water Holder's long‐term intervention in the Murray–Darling Basin,Australia

The Murray–Darling Basin in south‐eastern Australia contains over 70,000 km² of wetlands and floodplains, many of which are in poor condition. In response, Australian governments have committed to a major restoration program, the Murray–Darling Basin Plan that includes management of 2,750 Gl of environmental water to protect and restore aquatic ecosystems. The restoration is being undertaken within an adaptive management framework that includes monitoring the outcomes of environmental flows in seven river valleys. This paper provides an overview of the 5‐year monitoring project and some preliminary results. Monitoring design considered the Basin Plan's environmental objectives, conceptual models of ecosystem responses to flow, and an outcomes framework linking flow responses to the environmental objectives. Monitoring indicators includes ecosystem type, vegetation, river metabolism, and fish. Responses are evaluated to identify the contribution of environmental flows to Basin Plan environmental objectives and continual improvements in management. The program is unique in that it seeks to monitor long‐term outcomes of environmental flows at the river basin scale. Despite many challenges, the monitoring has become a key part of the adaptive management of environmental flows in the Murray–Darling Basin.     

挟沙水流的冲刷率及河床惯性的研究

在清水水流河床冲刷率的实验研究基础上，本文进一步研究了挟涉水流来沙率对冲刷率的影响。结果说明挟抄水流的冲刷率随来沙率与水流输沙力欠饱和度之比以负指数律降低。当来水挟抄率与水流饱和输抄率相等时，冲刷率降刊0。河床惯性是河床在非恒定流中一种重要的动力学性质。利用河床惯性与冲刷率的关系测量了各种沙样的河床惯性值。发现河床惯性随床沙颗粒分选系数增大而增大，分选系数很大时趋近于极限值50t／Tn0。利用河床惯性和河床变形方程得出了冲刷过程中水流输沙率沿程和随时间的变化规律，结果说明水流输沙率欠饱和度向下游以负指数律下降，这与冲刷率随实际水流挟沙率与欠饱和度之比以指数率下降的规律有耜同意义。河床惯性愈大，实际水流输沙率增长得愈慢。河床惯性与于容重及摩阻流速之比构成的无困次数A。代表河床变形和水流实际挟沙量对水流挟沙力变化的响应程度。     

Re-assessment of the monthly naturalized flow record for the River Thames at Kingston since 1883, and the implications for the relative severity of historical droughts

A rainfall-streamflow modelling methodology is applied to the monthly flow record for the Thames at Kingston, one of the most important long records of river flow (from 1883) in the UK National River Flow Archive (NRFA). Inspection of the model residuals confirms earlier work which showed that low flows during droughts before about 1950 have been underestimated, but indicates that the degree of underestimation has been greater than thought previously. It is argued that, consequently, recent droughts have been more severe than suggested by analyses of the existing Kingston flow record taken at face value. Several reasons are given for not making formal adjustments to the NRFA monthly flows on the basis of the model residuals: uncertainties associated with the model and the flow data (the gauged flows at Teddington and the abstractions/discharges necessary to derive ‘naturalized’ flows); and the effects over time of agricultural drainage, channel improvements and urbanization. It is demonstrated that rainfall-streamflow modelling has an important part to play in the quality assurance of river flow records.     

Effects of river regulation on aquatic macrophyte growth and floods in the Hadejia‐Nguru Wetlands and flow in the Yobe River,northern Nigeria; implications for future water management

The Hadejia River is a tributary of the Yobe River in semi‐arid northern Nigeria and is regulated by two major dams. The other main tributary is uncontrolled. Comparison of the discharge data for the controlled and uncontrolled rivers shows an average decrease of 33% in annual flow in the upstream part of the Hadejia River. The total annual flow and the peak flow in the Hadejia River further downstream, just above the Hadejia‐Nguru Wetlands (HNW), however, did not show a significant reduction in discharge. This is related to a relatively small river flow reduction at lower flows in the upstream part of the Hadejia River and the fact that the formal large upstream water users are not (yet) working at full capacity. The major impact of the dams on the downstream part of the river is the change in regime from ephemeral to perennial. The introduced dry season flows created favourable circumstances for the development of aquatic macrophyte blockages in the HNW. Owing to these blockages, the Hadejia River stopped contributing to the flow in the Yobe River for much of the year. Furthermore, after the completion of the dams, the timing of the floods in the HNW became less predictable. Suggestions for improvement of water management are made. These comprise engineering structures, including a flow diversion structure to regulate flows in the HNW, implementation of environmentally acceptable river flow strategies and water allocation management. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

汶川地震引发的流域管理新课题

汶川地震引发了大量的山体滑坡和崩塌.巨型滑坡夷平了山谷,创造了平缓坡地.这些新生地非常不稳定,易引发泥石流.尽快稳定和开发新生地是一个新问题.滑坡造成的堰塞湖引起剧烈河床演变,对河流地貌和稳定产生长远和深刻的影响.大量的崩塌体形成大石块堆积体,表面没有土壤,如何修复植被是一个严峻的挑战.本文通过野外测量和试验,对上述问题进行了探索并取得了初步成果.成果表明,采用阶梯-深潭结构稳定滑坡体,可以控制或减轻泥石流;发生于崩塌和滑坡体上的泥石流含水量小且大石块多,不是黏性泥石流而是两相泥石流,运动速度仅为黏性泥石流的1/10;堰塞坝发育成尼克点会显著改变河流纵剖面,稳定岸坡减少滑坡崩塌灾害;在花岗岩崩塌体上引种紫萼藓能显著加快植被演替,绿化裸露的石块堆积体.     

河流生态流量特征图及生态流量评价方法

以水电站大坝下游河道为研究对象,从分析天然日流量特征出发,基于月中值流量和月内典型特征流量绘制了河流生态流量特征图,作为水库下泄生态流量的确定依据。基于此河流生态流量特征图,建立了判断生态流量满足程度的7 d流量偏差率、7 d生态需水保证率、月均生态需水适宜度及基于此3个指标的生态需水综合指标,并给出了各指标的评价依据和评价方法。结果表明,河流生态流量特征图符合各时段河流天然流量的基本特征,可作为指导水库生态泄流的依据;所建立的生态流量评价方法能够反映实际下泄流量与天然流量的变化程度,可用于评价河流的生态流量满足程度。     

Instream flow methods: a comparison of approaches

Minimum flows in rivers and streams aim to provide a certain level of protection for the aquatic environment. The level of protection is described by a measure such as a prescribed proportion of historic flows, wetted perimeter or suitable habitat. Conflicting minimum flow assessments from different instream flow methods are arguably the result of different environmental goals and levels of protection. The goals, the way in which levels of protection are specified, and the relationship between levels of protection and the aquatic environment are examined for three major categories of flow assessment methods: historic flow, hydraulic geometry and habitat. Basic conceptual differences are identified. Flow assessments by historic flow and hydraulic methods are related to river size and tend to retain the ‘character’ of a river. Habitat-based methods make no a priori assumptions about the natural state of the river and flow assessments are based primarily on water depth and velocity requirements. Flow and hydraulic methods assume that lower than natural flows will degrade the stream ecosystem, whereas habitat methods accept the possibility that aspects of the natural ecosystem can be enhanced by other than naturally occurring flows. Application of hydraulic and habitat methods suggests that the environmental response to flow is not linear; the relative change in width and habitat with flow is greater for small rivers than for large. Small rivers are more ‘at risk’ than large rivers and require a higher proportion of the average flow to maintain similar levels of environmental protection. Habitat methods are focused on target species or specific instream uses, and are useful where there are clear management objectives and an understanding of ecosystem requirements. Flow and hydraulic methods are useful in cases where there is a poor understanding of the ecosystem or where a high level of protection for an existing ecosystem is required. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

PROJECTED FLOW ALTERATION AND ECOLOGICAL RISK FOR PAN‐EUROPEAN RIVERS

Projection of future changes in river flow regimes and their impact on river ecosystem health is a major research challenge. This paper assesses the implications of projected future shifts in river flows on in‐stream and riparian ecosystems at the pan‐European scale by developing a new methodology to quantify ecological risk due to flow alteration (ERFA). The river network was modelled as 33 668 cells (5′ longitude × 5′ latitude). For each cell, modelled monthly flows were generated for an ensemble of 10 scenarios for the 2050s and for the study baseline (naturalized flows for 1961–1990). These future scenarios consist of combinations of two climate scenarios and four socio‐economic water‐use scenarios (with a main driver of economy, policy, security or sustainability). Environmental flow implications are assessed using the new ERFA methodology, based on a set of monthly flow regime indicators (MFRIs). Differences in MFRIs between scenarios and baseline are calculated to derive ERFA classes (no, low, medium and high risk), which are based on the number of indicators significantly different from the baseline. ERFA classes are presented as colour‐coded pan‐European maps. Results are consistent between scenarios and show that European river ecosystems are under significant threat with about two‐thirds at medium or high risk of change. Four main zones were identified (from highest to lowest risk severity): (i) Mediterranean rim, southwest part of Eastern Europe and Western Asia; (ii) Northern Europe and northeast part of Eastern Europe; (iii) Western and Eastern Europe; and (iv) inland North Africa. Patterns of flow alteration risk are driven by climate‐induced change, with socio‐economics as a secondary factor. These flow alterations could be manifested as changes to species and communities, and loss of current ecosystem functions and services. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Operationalizing the allocation of environmental flows: A U.K. perspective on Baxter's Schedule

Early attempts to gauge streams were used by George Baxter in 1961 to propose a pioneering scheme for deriving and allocating water for what today may be recognized as environmental flows in the United Kingdom, but the approach was not accepted into practice. A fundamental concern was the quality of river flow data. Stream gauging was advanced by the 1963 Water Resources Act, and prior to this, the allocation of water resources to compensation flows below dams was based on the basic principle of one third of the reliable yield, estimated using rainfall data. Despite the increased availability of river flow data since the 1970s, it is suggested that low‐flow data quality has severely constrained the management and allocation of water resources and remains so today. Today, pressures and demands on water resources are increasing, but the accuracy of low‐flow measurement is still hindering the operational determination and implementation of environmentally robust, seasonally variable environmental flows. Successful river regulation and restoration relate to a complex suite of public policy questions and given uncertainty over the quality of low‐flow data, transparent, pragmatic decisions about societal allocations of water need to be made.     

DISTRIBUTED WATER BALANCE WITH RIVER DYNAMIC-DIFFUSIVE FLOW ROUTING MODEL

This article focuses on the application of coupling both river dynamic and river diffusive modeling techniques that can be used with distributed water balance model. In an upstream watershed, both overland and river diffusive flows are routed by diffusive wave approximation of the free surface flow equations. In river downstream reaches, the river dynamic flow is routed by one-dimensional dynamic wave equations (full dynamic St. Venant equations with lateral flow). The developed model is applied in a part of Arakawa River basin, Kanto area, Japan. The geographic data of river cross sections could be accurately represented by an 11-point cross-section approximation. The effects of both the grid size and lateral flow on the simulated results of the river dynamic flow model were studied. The grid size should be greater than the average width of the river cross-sections. The lateral flow from small drainage systems has significant effects on the simulated results using the river dynamic flow model. The simulated results show good and acceptable agreements with the observed flow discharges and water depths. Both the river discharge and water depth at any location of river network of compound channels with one/two complex floodplains could be correctly estimated.