Towards Sustainable Management of Scarce Water Resources in Botswana

Abstract

Proper management of scarce water resources has in recent years become necessary to maintain sustainable societies. This article discusses the management of water resources in Botswana. It highlights the amount of water resources available, relating it to the demand, and observes that the current trend of exploiting these resources will not be sustainable in the long run unless the major strategies suggested herein are adopted. It also looks at the administration of water and water resources in Botswana, focusing on the shared water resources. Government policies and strategies towards sustainable management of scarce water resources are also discussed. The author draws particular attention to the water tariff structure, noting that the prevailing water tariff system promotes sustainable management of water resources.     

An integrated population,economic, and water resource model to address sustainable development questions for Botswana

Abstract:

An integrated population, economic, and water resource model was developed to address sustainable development questions for Botswana. raditionally, water resources planning models have considered the implications of different assumptions of population and economic growth on the sustainability of existing water resources supply; however, this model extends that capability to consider feedbacks from one model component to another. For example, the model has the unique capability to examine implications of changing water‐related diarrhea incidence on the health of the HIV/AIDS population. Investments in water supply and sanitation or in HIV/AIDS medication impact the health and productivity of the population. The water model uses a physically‐based hydrologic rainfall‐runoff model with surface and groundwater components to produce monthly runoff and groundwater recharge at the watershed scale. Botswana is divided into socioeconomic regions, and the water resources infrastructure is characterized by virtual reservoirs in each. The demographic sub‐model is a standard multi‐cohort model that forecasts the population by age, sex, rural or urban residence, education level, and HIV/AIDS status. The economic sub‐model is a computable general equilibrium model with three components: agriculture, non‐agricultural exports, and non‐tradables. The model runs an ensemble of scenarios, including climate change, HIV/AIDS, health, economic, and water conservation scenarios, whose output is probabilistic in nature. The three model components are described, with particular emphasis on the model linkages and the water sub‐component, and results are shown for a variety of scenarios.     

Climate Change and Water Resource Availability: An Impact Assessment for Bombay and Madras,India

ABSTRACT

Global climate change associated with rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases may alter regional temperature and precipitation patterns. Such changes could threaten the availability of water resources/Or rapidly growing Third World cities, many of which are already experiencing severe water supply deficiencies. This paper investigates the potential impacts of climate change on water resource availability for two Indian cities, Bombay and Madras. The paper begins by discussing future trends for population growth and water demand in each city. Nat, using climate change scenarios based on three general circulation models (GCMs), the paper assesses how climate change may affect water availability in the two urban regions. The assessment is conducted through the use of a monthly dryness index measuring potential evapotranspiration and precipitation. For each region, the dryness index under “normal” climatic conditions is compared with indexes created using GCM scenarios. The results of this assessment indicate that, unless large increases in regional precipitation accompany climate warming, higher rates of evapotranspiration will mean reduced water availability for both cities. The paper concludes by discussing some implications for water management in Third World cities.     

Estimation of the Water Resources Potential in the Island System of the Aegean Archipelago,Greece

Abstract

The present paper tries to estimate the surface water resources potential in some of the major Aegean islands in an effort to provide a means for the continuous development of the region, and, by extension, for similar areas around the world. The islands have to confront the challenge of surviving in a semiarid environment under the constraints of uneven water resources distribution both in space and time. In addition to these, tourism development, industrialization and highly water consumptive life styles have exacerbated perennial problems in water resources and water resources management. The framework of the present effort has a two-prong emphasis. In the first part, a simulation model is presented, which tries to estimate the potential surface runoff under physical, structural organizational, and institutional constraints. The methodology and the premises of the simulation process are delineated. In the second part, the results of the model's application in distinct cases are demarcated. The final product, namely the model and the resulting runoff coefficients, are presented in the form of a standard, which may provide practitioners in the field as well as decisionmakers the means for an initial reference in pertinent developmental efforts. Finally, the conclusions and recommendations raise the question of ecosystem resilience and point towards the urgent and continuous need for the application of integrated water resources management principles.     

The Role of the Sahara in Food Production

ABSTRACT

Capacity building is foremost a global concept and a strategic element in the sustainable development of the water sector. This is a long-term continuing process that needs to permeate all activities in the sector. In developing countries, experience shows that institutional weakness and malfunctions are a major cause of ineffective and unsustainable water services. Urgent attention needs to be given to build institutional capacity at all levels. Pressure for improved local delivery of water services suggests that development of institutional capacity should be more demand-responsive. The need to better manage overall water resources coherently and to facilitate allocation of water among all users requires an expansion of national integrated planning. The critical institutional challenge is the development of policies, rules, organizations and management skills which address both needs simultaneously without constraining the major aims of each. It must be recognized that each country and region has its specific characteristics and requirements with respect to its water resources situation and its institutional framework. Therefore, operational strategies for water sector capacity building must be tailor-made. Such strategies should be long term, having the main objectives of improving the quality of decision making, and sector efficiency of managerial performance in the planning and implementation of water sector programmes and projects. This paper covers the capacity building issue for water resources development and management. The institutional and human resources issues as well as building marginal capabilities in developing countries receive particular emphasis.     

WEAP21—A Demand-, Priority-, and Preference-Driven Water Planning Model

Abstract

The Water Evaluation and Planning Version 21 (WEAP21) Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) model seamlessly integrates water supplies generated through watershed-scale hydrologic processes with a water management model driven by water demands and environmental requirements and is governed by the natural watershed and physical network of reservoirs, canals, and diversions. This version (WEAP21) extends the previous WEAP model by introducing the concept of demand priorities and supply preferences, which are used in a linear programming heuristic to solve the water allocation problem as an alternative to multi-criteria weighting or rule-based logic approaches. WEAP21 introduces a transparent set of model objects and procedures that can be used to analyze a full range of issues faced by water planners through a scenario-based approach. These issues include climate variability and change, watershed condition, anticipated demands, ecosystem needs, the regulatory environment, operational objectives, and available infrastructure.     

The Yellow River Basin: Water Accounting,Water Accounts,and Current Issues

Abstract

There is increasing recognition of the problems facing China in meeting the growing water demand in the Yellow River basin, the “cradle of Chinese Civilization” and a critically important agricultural and industrial region. Meaningful debate on the range and relative costs of options available to policy-makers in addressing the problem depend fundamentally on an accurate understanding of basin water resources. Unfortunately, the ability of outsiders to participate in the de bate and for Chinese, with their long history of water management, to contribute to similar discussions elsewhere in the world is hindered to some extent by a lack of understanding of differences in water accounting systems and concepts. This paper attempts to address this problem by describing the water accounting system used in the Yellow River basin and elsewhere in China. The paper shows that the primary difference between water accounting methodologies in the Yellow River and those typically applied elsewhere is related to supply accounting in general and groundwater accounting in particular. Although not currently included in its water accounting system, Chinese concepts of environmental water use, when included, will also differ substantially from those familiar to outside researchers. In terms of actual Yellow River balances, the paper highlights the apparent declining trend in basin rainfall and runoff and the dramatic growth in industrial and domestic water use. Together declining supply and rising demand will increasingly cause policy-makers to face hard choices in assessing their water planning options. These choices will only become more difficult as managers in the Yellow River, as elsewhere in the world, try to incorporate ecological needs in the water accounting equation.     

Experiences with IWRM in the Central Asia and Caucasus Regions

Abstract

The Soviet period of the command system left a legacy of under-funded multilevel bureaucratic structure of water administration and planning for the Central Asia and Caucasus countries. The existing administrative system of water management is unable to cope with inter-sector, dynamic, and versatile character of current water management problems. Therefore, the situation calls for principles of integrated water resources management (IWRM) in the region. This paper presents some ideas about institutional reforms in water sector started in Central Asia and Caucasus regions. It describes the key IWRM principles and how these principles are being implemented into practice.     

Groundwater in Water Resources Planning: Conjunctive Use

ABSTRACT

Many water resources planning specialists underrate or overlook groundwater resources. In many cases, the reasons which are usually expressed belie a lack of confidence in their potential and in the ability of today's technology to predict their behavior. The area occupied by aquifers and the fact that they account for 30% of stream discharges, are strong arguments in favor of utilizinggroundwater resources. Likewise, with present groundwater evaluation techniques and the availability of models and simulation methods, the impact of long-term groundwater exploitation can be evaluated with as great a degree of accuracy as the methods used for surface water. Very often groundwater resources are economically more favorable than surface water; however, in regions where water resources are scarce, the problem should not be one of competition but collaboration. The correct approach is the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources. Through conjunctive use additional water resources can be obtained, additional means of water storage, distribution and treatment can be made available, as well as achieving greater efficiency in water resources system management.     

The Jordan River Basin: 2. Potential Future Allocations to the Co-riparians

Abstract

The Jordan River drains parts of four States and one territory (Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan and Palestine), and is an important regional source of water. A previous paper in this series discussed the flow allocations from the Jordan River to the co-riparians which were proposed in the Johnston Plan of 1955, noting that recently declassified documents shed new light on the allocation proposed for Israel. The present paper discusses potential future allocations of water from the Jordan River basin to the co-riparians, providing alternative methods of calculating these using basic principles which are considered to generally reflect customary international water law. It is concluded that whilst certain of the downstream co-riparians are undoubtedly “water-stressed” an acceptable solution to the allocation of water within the region is attainable. However, this will depend on coupling the allocation of the existing resources to the strategic development of additional fresh water resources in the region, which will also encourage the joint management of the resulting system.     

An Assessment of Climate Change,Water Resources,and Policy Research

ABSTRACT

A significant climate change can affect water resources and result in social and/or environmental impacts that can become policy issues. Review of the research in this emerging field of climate, water and policy reveals certain key issues that affect the transfer of information to policymakers. It also reveals the necessity for interdisciplinary analyses, a lack of information about parts of the hydrologic cycle, and the limited views many hydrologists have about climate changes and how to deal with them. The emphasis of recent research has been on effects on precipitation of CO, induced global warming on how climate changes might alter extreme events (droughts and floods), the relationship of climate alterations and water quality, and development of methods to better ascertain linkages of climate, water, and society. Policymakers attempting to address the effects of climate change on water resources generally ask six questions including: (1) the type of climate change apt to occur; 2) the changes beyond our recent (100-year) experience; 3) whether the changes can be predicted; 4) the certainty of change/s predicted; 5) the effects (social and environmental) that will occur; and (6) the potential adjustments needed.

Efforts to address adequately these questions are often hindered by four problem areas that need attention. First, climate impacts research is still in the developmental stage. Second, knowledge about certain hydrologic cycle variables is lacking and in particular, the interactions between climate and water quality. Third, many hydrologists assume stationarity in climate and find it difficult to accept and utilize climate change concepts. Finally, the impact of information on climate-water issues on the policy process is less than adequate often because scientists poorly understand the policy process.     

Development of a Master Plan for Water Pollution Control Using MCDM Techniques: A Case Study

Abstract

Excessive demand for water due to a growing population, agricultural, and industrial development, along with climate change and depletion of nonrenewable resources have intensified the need for integrated water resources management and water pollution control. This paper presents different aspects of a master plan for water pollution control and the results of a case study for developing a master plan for water resources pollution control in Isfahan Province in Iran. Different components of the water resources system and pollution sources in the study area were identified and the effects of each of the pollution sources on surface and groundwater resources contamination were investigated. Two Multiple Criterion Decision Making (MCDM) techniques, namely Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) method and Analytical Hierarchy Structure (AHP) were used in order to determine the share of agricultural, industrial, and domestic sectors in polluting the water resources. In the application of MCDM techniques, engineering judgments and the information gathered from brain storming sessions with engineering experts and the agencies' officials have also been incorporated in order to overcome the data deficiency in this region for this type of analysis. Based on this study, several specific major categories of water pollution reduction projects were defined and in each category, several projects were identified. The total cost of implementation of the projects was also estimated and the projects were prioritized based on their potential impact on water pollution control.     

A systems approach to validating the water vision of the Aral Sea Basin

Abstract:

The governments of the Aral Sea Basin countries, in cooperation with international organizations (UNESCO and World Bank) came up with a “water vision “for the region until 2025. The landlocked Aral Sea has been suffering from an imbalance in water evaporation, and, water inflow from its two main sources — Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, when the planners in the former Soviet Union from the 1960s diverted the river waters for irrigation. The irrigated area has increased from the 1960s by two‐thirds to 7 million hectares and the population by three‐fold to 50 million in the basin countries. Consequently the inflow to the Aral Sea from these two rivers decreased from 55 km³ in 1960 to a few km³ during the 1980s and 1990s. This has resulted in one of the worst man‐made ecological disasters of the century. In this paper, we examine different scenarios to achieve the vision goals and whether it is indeed feasible. Using IWMI basin‐oriented water accounting principles, we have shown that significant amount of water is being wasted in the region. Our analysis concludes that though not all the vision goals are likely to be met over the next 25 years, the inflow into the Aral Sea can be increased to over 20 km³ through better management and use of water resources.     

Influences Of Past And Future Climates On The Great Lakes Region Of North America

ABSTRACT

The paper examines the impact of climate on water resources, focussing on the Great Lakes region of North America. Following a discussion of the prevailing interactions between climate and hydrology the potential impacts of atmospheric warming as a result of increased CQ concentration are examined. Using the results of several investigations based on global circulation models, significant impacts are described in electricity demand, residential heating and cooling, power generation, shipping, agriculture, recreation, and municipal water use. In view of the considerable uncertainty involved in forecasting future climatic conditions, resource managers examining the future should consider a range of future climatic conditions and impacts.     

A Semi-Distributed Monthly Water Balance Model and its Application in a Climate Change Impact Study in the Middle and Lower Yellow River Basin

Abstract

Human activities and climatic change have greatly impacted hydrological cycles and water resources planning in the Yellow River basin. In order to assess these impacts, a semi-distributed monthly water balance model was proposed and developed to simulate and predict the hydrological processes in the middle and lower Yellow River basin. GIS techniques were used as a tool to analyze topography, river networks, land-use, human activities, vegetation, and soil characteristics. The model parameters were calibrated in 35 gauged sub-basins in the middle Yellow River, and then the relationships between the model parameters and the basin physical characteristics were established. A parameterization scheme was developed in which the model parameters were estimated for each grid element by regression and optimization methods. Based on the different outputs of general circulation models (GCMs) and regional climate models (RCMs), the sensitivities to global warming of hydrology and water resources for the Yellow River basin were studied. The proposed models are capable of producing both the magnitude and timing of runoff and water resources conditions. The runoffs are found to be very sensitive to temperature increases and rainfall decreases. Results of the study also indicated that runoff is more sensitive to variation in precipitation than to increase in temperature. The additional uncertainty of climate change has posed a challenge to the existing water resources management practices, and the integration of water resources management will be necessary to enhance the water use efficiency in the Yellow River basin.     

Impacts of Global Climate Change Scenarios on Water Supply and Demand in Jordan

Abstract

The potential impact of global climate change is one of the least addressed factors in water resources planning in developing countries. The potential impacts of climate change are examined for Jordan, where a methodology is presented for improved management of water demand under the uncertainties associated with climate change. A temperature/precipitation sensitivity model is constructed and combined with water demand forecasts to project deficits for the year 2020. Deficit reducing options are then evaluated in terms of social and economic viability. The study concludes that only some of the deficits may be alleviated, illustrating the significance of considering climate change in planning for countries that already experience water imbalances.     

气候变化对干旱内陆河流域水资源影响的研究进展

气候变化对水资源的影响是当前全球变化研究的热点和前沿问题之一。气候变化对干旱内陆河流域水资源影响的研究也越来越引起诸多学者的关注与重视。本文回顾了国内外气候变化对水资源影响研究现状与进展,总结了相关的研究方法,并从水文要素、气候变化与人类活动对水资源的定量评估、气候变化对极端水文事件的影响研究和应对气候变化的水资源适应性管理措施4个方面归纳了相关方面的研究成果。同时指出了气候变化对干旱内陆河流域水资源影响研究存在的问题,并展望了未来气候变化对干旱内陆河流域水资源影响研究的发展趋势。     

Comparative Evaluation of Water Resource Data Policy Inventories Towards the Improvement of East African Climate and Water Data Infrastructure

The recognized challenge of freely accessing climate and water data in East Africa poses a problem in undertaking relevant analytical studies and making informed water resources management decisions in the region. This study seeks to understand the defining characteristics of policies and distribution infrastructure, in the context of meteorological, water quantity, and water quality data, that determine whether or not a user will be able to freely and readily access existing data. An analysis was developed to quantify the information contained in legislation, official documents and websites, and similar textual resources from the study region and elsewhere to establish commonalities, potential trends, and patterns in the documentation behind data streams culminating successfully in a portal or database accessible by the public. A quantitative analysis was applied to discern overall patterns in what constitutes effective policy and to diagnose where there may be impediments in the path between data collection and its application. Generally, the foundational elements present in the documentation pertaining to most accessible data streams represented are: (1) known organization in charge of that data type; (2) known location where this data would be stored; (3) defined data collection format; and (4) commitment to a plan for making data available to potential users. Examination of overlap between elements absent in unsuccessful data streams and present in successful data streams suggests that those without a documented commitment to making data available online rarely result in a functioning, accessible portal and vice versa. Amongst other findings, this knowledge has the potential to contribute towards the development and refinement of policies so that more emphasis is placed on openness and access, leading to informed decision-making and management of water resources.

     

The Management of Urban Water Conflicts in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo

Abstract

In Latin America, after the democratization process in the 1980s, public pressure imposed new models of management in the water sector. These new models have been extremely successful in making the political class more aware of the water problem, as illustrated by the Brazilian example. Public pressure forced congressmen to propose a new Federal Constitution in 1988 in which environmental and water issues are explicitly considered. This paper discusses the technical, legal, and institutional aspects of integrated water management in the Upper Tiet[etilde] basin in the metropolitan region of São Paulo, with 16.5 million inhabitants and the largest industrial complex in Latin America. Emphasis is placed on the conflicting interests of upstream and downstream groups in the basin. A successful experiment of integrated water resources planning on a watershed basis is described, where modern decision support systems technology is combined with effective public participation.     

Communiquk

Abstract

This article provides an overview of trends relating to information and communication technologies, revealing an explosive cycle of growth. These technologies present global dilemmas of unequal access to information and of differing capacities for converting information into effective knowledge for decision-making purposes. The interactions between the rapid emergence of the Internet and the sustainable development and knowledge management communities is outlined. Potential consequences for water policy and management activities, water information needs, research and education activities, and water organizations are examined. Lastly, some challenges these information technologies pose to the water resources community of practice are posited. Current ICT trends challenge our thinking, provide an opportunity to examine our various knowledges and practices and to implement changes for a more sustainable water agenda.