Assessment of Water Quality Management in Turkey

Abstract

There has been a noticeable increase in the amount of pollution in water resources in Turkey in recent years. Negative environmental developments, such as industrialization, increasing urbanization, improper pesticide and fertilizer applications in agricultural lands, and the drainage of domestic and industrial wastewater into water resources without any waste treatment applications, cause rapid pollution of both surface and groundwater resources. Therefore, it is necessary to allocate more attention to water resources monitoring and evaluation studies to prevent the pollution of water resources, and to reclaim these resources.     

Wastewater Reuse as Means to Optimize the Use of Water Resources in the West Bank

Abstract

The increase in demand for the limited raw water resources in the Palestinian Territories has led to the proposals for use of treated wastewater as one alternative for alleviating water shortages and for optimizing the use of water resources. Wastewater reuse is a multi-discipline and important element of water resources development. Wastewater usage releases high quality water for drinking and other purposes. Quantitative, economic, and social aspects related to wastewater reuse in the West Bank are discussed. Through analyses of the estimated cost and expected water quantities, the paper investigates the economic feasibility of wastewater reuse. Social acceptance is elicited by means of questionnaires, which have been applied to farmers and inhabitants in different areas of the West Bank. Wastewater reuse can compensate for about 10 percent of irrigated agriculture, which contributes 35 percent of the total value of the Palestinian agricultural sector. The paper presents an analysis of the main aspects of wastewater reuse and defines an approach to the beneficial use of wastewater as a component that should be considered in the strategy for the overall management of water resources in the Palestinian Territories.     

Water Resources Management under Competitive Sectoral Demand A Case Study from Jordan

Abstract

Jordan is a country plagued with water scarcity. The annual per capita share of water is currently estimated at 170 m³ and the figure is expected to drop to 90 m³ in the year 2020 as a result of the disproportional increase in population relative to water resources development. Moreover, about 70 percent of the country's water resources are consumed in irrigated agriculture. For most crops growing in all areas and seasons and managed with different production technologies, analysis of net return from unit volume of irrigation water showed, with few exceptions, low values pertaining to production under protected agriculture. Such a result indicated unjustified waste of water in the agricultural sector at the expense of the domestic sector. This paper reviews current challenges facing water management in the country and proposes short- and long-term alternative solutions.     

Improvement of Field Water Distribution and Irrigation Techniques: The Southeastern Anatolia Project-GAP

ABSTRACT

The Southeastern Anatolia Project-GAP is an integrated regional development project implemented in southeast Turkey. The project cows all development-related sectors such as agriculture, industry, health care, education. tourism, transportation, and telecommunications.

Water resources development is one most important component of the project. Rational use of water is the goal in every aspect of development, be it hydropower, irrigation, or flood control. To complement the efforts to optimize water use in irrigated agriculture, a project has been carried out in regard to on-farm equipment and management of water. This paper describes several equipment and management combinations, applied to a very large irrigation area. ranging from gravity to sprinkler irrigation, and from upstream to downstream control of water.

Five different applications are analyzed in this study along with their technical, economic, and operational merits and disadvantages.

The project area is selected in the Sanliurfa-Harran Plains, the largest one-piece scheme to be opened to irrigation in GAP It is owned and cultivated by private farmers, and as such, it is expected to act as a large-scale, real-world laboratory to test different irrigation practices in actual conditions.     

Assessment of irrigation schemes in Turkey with irrigation Ratio and relative water supply

Abstract:

Irrigation management is among the key factors for the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. In Turkey, irrigation management is becoming increasingly important due to the scarcity of water resources and degrading environmental conditions. In this paper, we compiled a large data set that compromise of water supply, crop types, crop water requirement, and irrigated and command areas that are SHW‐operated (State Hydraulic Works) and transferred irrigation schemes (the schemes transferred from SHW to non‐profit organizations, i.e., water users’ associations) for the five years (1996 to 2000). This data set was used to calculate two irrigation performance indicators: Irrigation ratio (IR) and relative water supply (RWS). ANOVA test results indicated that the differences in the IR and RWS among the years were statistically not significant, whereas a statistically significant difference was found between the SHW‐operated and transferred irrigation schemes. The average values of the irrigation ratios for the transferred irrigation schemes were always higher than that of the SHW‐operated schemes, but the opposite was true for the RWS. This suggest that the transfer of the SHW‐operated schemes to the water use associations must be initiated and encouraged, in addition to the set up of legal procedures for participatory irrigation management, in order to cope with the possible operation and maintenance (O&M) problems of irrigation schemes.     

作物生产水足迹量化方法与评价研究

农业用水效率评价是农业水资源管理的基础。作物生产水足迹有效的统一了旱作、灌溉农业以及不同尺度的水分利用效率评价指标,为农业水资源管理提供了新的评价指标与工具。本文在现有作物生产水足迹量化方法的基础上,提出了基于区域耗水量和区域用水量的作物生产水足迹量化方法,形成了三种适用于不同评价目标和尺度的量化方法。以中国大陆为研究对象,利用不同方法对小麦水足迹进行量化,探讨了三种方法的特点和适用性。研究表明三种量化方法具有各自的适用范围和科学内涵,基于田间作物蒸发蒸腾量所得到的作物生产水足迹能够反映田间尺度水分利用效率、农业资源禀赋;基于区域耗水量的计算方法能够反映区域尺度水分利用效率、农业资源禀赋和区域耗水特性;基于区域用水量的水足迹量化方法能够反映区域尺度水分利用效率、灌溉系统运行水平与农业生产用水量。鉴于三种作物生产水足迹量化方法的差异性,在进行水足迹量化评价时,需根据具体的研究尺度和评价目标确定作物生产水足迹量化方法,使量化和评价结果更为科学合理。     

对农业水资源费和水费问题的思考与建议

随着国家取消农业税以及逐步取消乡统筹、村提留等收费项目，农业水资源费和农业水费问题成为当前农村的一个热点。农业水费在农业生产成本中的比例不断上升，但灌溉带来的增收效益明显。农业种粮收入低是造成农业水价改革难的关键因素。建议抓紧制定农业生产用水定额，推进节水型农业建设，继续深化农业水价改革，加大政府扶持力度，强化农田水利对农业的支持保护作用。     

Solarizing groundwater irrigation in India: a growing debate

Abstract

India is on a path to reduce its carbon emission intensity with a major thrust on increasing the grid-connected solar photovoltaic capacity. However, the carbon footprint in agriculture is on the rise. Heavy subsidies for electricity and diesel to pump groundwater for irrigated agriculture, combined with lack of regulations on water withdrawal, are resulting in both groundwater over-exploitation and increased carbon emissions. Some researchers and practitioners have suggested large-scale promotion of solar pumps for well irrigation as a way to make agricultural growth carbon-neutral and groundwater use in farming sustainable. This article examines whether solar pumps for groundwater irrigation are technically feasible and economically viable in India.     

Probable water crisis in Thrace and Istanbul in the near future and a sustainable strategy to overcome it

Abstract

The Thrace Region of Turkey, a passageway from Asia to Europe, which includes the most populated city of Istanbul, is threatened by a water crisis in the very near future. The population of Istanbul alone is forecast to reach 30 millions by the year 2025, requiring 3 billion m³ of water, nearly equal to the total fresh water resources of the region, 3.4 billion m³. In this study, we consider not only the proportion of the available water resources to be allocated for each competing sector, civil, agriculture and industry, but also attempt to outline integrated water management strategies for each sector. The potential of small earth reservoirs, more than 1,500 in number, is emphasised as a way to develop fresh water resources. Water saving policies in the cities and ethics for water use are also briefly discussed.     

Policy Options to Improve Water Allocation Efficiency: Analysis on Egypt and Morocco

Abstract

Because of political risk, economic feasibility, and cultural concerns, it has been a great challenge for economists to provide palatable remedies to governments to promote water allocation efficiency. Considering the limitation of water pricing to irrigation water, this research addresses questions of which strategic policy alternatives to water pricing might improve irrigation water allocation efficiency. An empirical framework is provided to compare irrigation policies for allocating scarce water to agricultural production in Egypt and Morocco. Partial-equilibrium agricultural sector models specific to Egypt and Morocco were employed for policy tests. Consumer and producer surplus from agricultural based commodities is maximized subject to various resources, technical, and policy constraints. Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) was used to calibrate the model. Water pricing policy, water complementary input factor tax policy, and output tax policy are tested using these two agricultural sector models. Results suggest that effective policy depends on the social, economic, and environmental contexts of specific regions. For countries like Egypt where most agricultural land is irrigated, taxes on Nitrogen (N) fertilizer and energy and output tax on water-intensive and low profit crop production may be more effective than others. For the Moroccan case, taxation on crop inputs and outputs not only affect water use in the public irrigation sector, but also private irrigation sector and rain-fed as a whole. Water pricing and output tax policies are better suited and effective than water complementary input factor taxation. Findings from Morocco might be generalized to other countries with similar irrigation characteristics and diversity in irrigated (public and private) and rain-fed land. The results for both countries demonstrate that some of the strategic irrigation policies can work towards directing cropping decisions to less water intensive crops and also generating revenues for governments in situations where governments choose not to price water.     

Changes in Summer Irrigated Crop Area and Water Use in Southeastern Turkey from 1993 to 2002: Implications for Current and Future Water Resources

Changes in summer irrigated cropland acreage and related water use are estimated from satellite remote sensing and ancillary data in semi-arid Southeastern Turkey where traditionally dry agricultural lands are being rapidly transformed into irrigated fields with the help of water from the Euphrates-Tigris Rivers. An image classification methodology based on thresholding of Landsat NDVI images from the peak summer period reveals that the total area of summer irrigated crops has increased three-fold (from 35,000 ha to over 100,000) in the Harran Plain between 1993 and 2002. Coupled analysis of annual irrigated crop area from remote sensing and potential evapotranspiration based estimates of irrigation water requirements for cotton indicate a corresponding increase in agricultural water use from about 370 million cubic meters to over one billion cubic meters, a volume in accordance with the state estimates. These estimates have important implications for understanding the rapid changes in current agricultural withdrawals in Southeastern Turkey and form a quantitative basis for exploring the changes in future water demands in the region. For example, expansion of irrigated lands have led to a steady decrease in potential evaporation due to increased roughness and decreased humidity deficit in the Harran Plain. Assuming that the changes in future evaporation conditions will be of similar nature, water use for irrigation is expected to decrease over 40 percent in future irrigation sites. Incorporating this decrease in overall planning of the irrigation projects currently under construction should lead to improved management, and by extension, sustainability of water resources in the region.     

The Assessment of Irrigation Efficiency in Buyuk Menderes Basin

While extending irrigated areas to augment agricultural production, irrigation efficiency should be increased not only to improve the agricultural production but also to obtain the sustainable use of valuable and limited water resources. Through the use of Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), which is a linear programming technique to determine the relative efficiency of a decision-making unit, it is possible to decide whether the use of water in an irrigation district is efficient or not. In this study, an input oriented DEA model is constituted to focus on the efficient use of inputs, and the method is applied to the irrigation districts having similar types of agriculture in the Buyuk Menderes Basin, Turkey. This paper aims to determine the efficient irrigation district(s), in other words where the application of water is the most profitable, considering two inputs; water volume supplied and the total irrigated area, and one output, the total value of agricultural production. The weight restrictions consistent with decision makers’ value judgements are added as constraints into the DEA models to prevent excessive weight flexibility assigned to inputs and outputs. The results have provided the efficiency scores of the irrigation districts and numerically delineated desired features of the irrigation districts for maximum efficiency. The analyses for three study years have inferred the robustness of the results. It is concluded that DEA is a practical tool for detecting local inefficiencies and proposing possible improvements for irrigation districts that could offer the greatest potential for growth.     

水足迹框架下稻田水资源利用效率综合评价

为综合评价稻田水资源利用效率,优选高效灌排模式,本文基于水足迹理论,考虑水资源利用率、水资源产出效益和水量及环境效益3个方面,构建稻田水资源利用效率综合评价指标体系,利用层次分析法和模糊综合评价模型对2015—2018年各处理稻田水资源利用效率进行综合评价,并与单个指标的评价进行对比。结果显示:各处理作物水足迹年均值分别为976.8(浅水勤灌)、1008.7(浅湿灌溉)、954.4(控制灌溉)和792.6 mm(蓄水-控灌),蓝、绿及灰水比例年均值分别为16.4%、40.9%和42.7%;水资源产出效益在水资源利用效率评价中占据首要位置;各处理稻田水资源利效率综合评分值在2.8058～3.9432之间,等级为中或中高,优选出的高效灌排模式为蓄水控灌;作物水分利用效率、作物水足迹与综合评价的对比表明水资源利用效率综合评价至关重要。基于水足迹的稻田水资源利用效率评价能够为农业用水效率评价提供一种新视角,为农业节水尤其是水稻节水的科学研究和决策提供实践依据。     

灌溉预报决策支持系统的示范与推广

利用区域内基础信息、实时监测信息,并根据节水灌溉预报原理,在区域用水总量预测和指标控制下,采用节水灌溉理念和区域水资源总量控制管理模式,以供定需、以供定耗,构建科学的节水灌溉预报网络体系,建设灌溉预报决策支持系统。实现区域范围内的分片、分类节水灌溉预报和农业用水效率评估,结合网站发布节水灌溉预报结果,指导农民适时、适量科学灌溉,为河北省节水农业发展创新思路、探索新途径示范、推广。2011年至今分别在河北省范围内不同灌溉预报分区共10个县得到应用推广。     

农业高效用水研究进展与成果回顾

在系统阐述农业高效用水研究进展与发展趋势基础上,对农业高效用水研究领域取得的主要成果及创新进行回顾和综述。在应用基础与前沿技术方面,开展农田水土管理、灌区节水决策、精量灌溉预报决策、精量控制地面灌溉、喷微灌水肥高效利用、农田氮素迁移转化与控制等方法和技术研究;在关键技术与产品方面,对喷滴灌、地面灌、管道输水灌溉、灌区用水管理、农田排水与涝渍灾害防治、劣质水资源化灌溉利用、农业水资源开发利用、节水灌溉设备质量监测与评价等技术和产品进行研发;在宏观战略与发展对策方面,开展农村水利发展战略、粮食安全与灌溉发展战略、节水灌溉发展战略和农村水利科技发展战略等研究。通过国家重大科技成果推广应用项目,对取得的科技成果进行转化和推广应用,为我国农业高效用水提供了新技术、新方法和新产品。     

Economic Benefits of Reservoirs in the Irrigated Agriculture

Abstract

In the Jordan Valley of Jordan, the demand for water and ability to control its location, timing, quality, and quantity are becoming critical. The competition for water between the urban and agricultural sectors is increasing. There is a general trend in Jordan to reduce water allocated for agricultural use. Increasing the price of irrigation water or restricting the planted areas of water consuming crops, such as bananas, has been implemented during the recent growing season. The main objective of this paper is to highlight the impact of optimal allocation of irrigation water by building storage capacity on the economy of Jordan Valley. A linear programming technique is used, and the main results show that for proper management of water storage capacity, the suggested cropping pattern would generate $88.2 million, whereas the actual cropping pattern generated $74.4 million. The optimal water demand schedule is distributed according to the needs of the planted crops, and water demand has been allocated in an efficient way. In addition, appropriate management of storage capacity has solved the problem of water scarcity during the summer months, when peak production takes place. Storage-transfer system between locations played a significant role in reallocating irrigation water through the storage system. This compensates to a high degree in keeping the agricultural production more stable in physical and monetary units.     

Facing Water Scarcity in Jordan

Abstract

Jordan is extremely water-scarce with just 167 m³ per capita per year to meet domestic, industrial, agricultural, tourism, and environmental demands. The heavy exploitation of water resources has contributed to declines in the levels of aquifers and the Dead Sea. Rapid growth in demand, particularly for higher quality water for domestic, industrial, and tourism uses, is significantly increasing pressure on agricultural and environmental uses of water, both of which must continue to adapt to reduced volumes and lower quality water. The agricultural sector has begun to respond by improving irrigation efficiency and increasing the use of recycled water. Total demand for water still exceeds renewable supplies while inadequate treatment of sewage used for irrigation creates potential environmental and health risks and presents agricultural marketing challenges that undermine the competitiveness of exports. The adaptive capability of the natural environment may already be past sustainable limits with oasis wetlands having been most seriously affected. Development of new water resources is extremely expensive in Jordan with an average investment cost of US$4 to $5 per cubic meter. This paper examines four integrated water resources management (IWRM) approaches of relevance to Jordan: water reuse, demand management, energy-water linkages, and transboundary water management. While progress in Jordan has been made, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation continues to be concerned about the acute water scarcity the country faces as well as the need to continue working with concerned stakeholders to assure future water supplies.     

Water Conservation in Oman

ABSTRACT

Limited resources and growing needs for water have triggered a nationwide campaign for water conservation in the Sultanate of Oman. A land and soil survey study of Oman shows the availability of more arable land than present water resources could support. Groundwater is the main source for agricultural production. Overpumping at rates higher than the natural recharge has resulted in lowering of the ground water table, while seawater intrusion has led to an increase in soil salinity. A comprehensive water program is underway to: (1) conserve water through efficent irrigation, use of soil additives, modern irrigation systems, agronomic management, and institutionalization; and (2) augmentation of resources via introduction of more desalinization plants, more waste water treatment, use of brackish water; water fog collection, and water harvesting by building recharge dams.     

Moving beyond ‘more crop per drop’: insights from two decades of research on agricultural water productivity

ABSTRACT

Concern over increasing water scarcity has led to the introduction of the concept of agricultural water productivity and an emphasis on interventions to achieve ‘more crop per drop’. Yet, a strong debate continues on how the concept is to be defined and used. Drawing largely from the irrigation literature, the origins of the concept and its methodological developments are reviewed, and its use in applied work over two decades is discussed. Based on this analysis of conceptual and applied research, key insights into the concept’s contributions and limitations are presented, as well as opportunities for further refinements.     

基于CiteSpace的农业节水研究进展与发展趋势

借助Cite Space可视化软件,对无形的科学知识进行了可视化计量研究。利用共引共词分析、多元统计分析、社会网络分析等方法,绘制了农业节水研究领域的科技文献共引网络图谱、高被引文献的热点词图谱以及前沿进展时区图谱。分析可知国内外有关农业节水的高被引文献多数是关于实验方法和技术应用,目前国内比较侧重于节水灌溉、水资源、节水型社会、农业节水技术方面的研究;国外有关农业节水研究热点主要集中在灌溉水利用效率、灌溉水资源、虚拟水、农业产量及种植结构等。国内在基于作物水分高效利用的遗传育种学及分子生物学方面研究相对薄弱,作物抗旱及水分高效利用机理、水分养分耦合及高产协调机理等生物节水方面有待进一步研究;在多种农业节水技术联合运用方面研究有待加强;农业节水的生态环境效应评价方面研究是未来农业节水研究的发展趋势。