Facing Water Scarcity in Jordan

Abstract

Jordan is extremely water-scarce with just 167 m³ per capita per year to meet domestic, industrial, agricultural, tourism, and environmental demands. The heavy exploitation of water resources has contributed to declines in the levels of aquifers and the Dead Sea. Rapid growth in demand, particularly for higher quality water for domestic, industrial, and tourism uses, is significantly increasing pressure on agricultural and environmental uses of water, both of which must continue to adapt to reduced volumes and lower quality water. The agricultural sector has begun to respond by improving irrigation efficiency and increasing the use of recycled water. Total demand for water still exceeds renewable supplies while inadequate treatment of sewage used for irrigation creates potential environmental and health risks and presents agricultural marketing challenges that undermine the competitiveness of exports. The adaptive capability of the natural environment may already be past sustainable limits with oasis wetlands having been most seriously affected. Development of new water resources is extremely expensive in Jordan with an average investment cost of US$4 to $5 per cubic meter. This paper examines four integrated water resources management (IWRM) approaches of relevance to Jordan: water reuse, demand management, energy-water linkages, and transboundary water management. While progress in Jordan has been made, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation continues to be concerned about the acute water scarcity the country faces as well as the need to continue working with concerned stakeholders to assure future water supplies.     

Economic Benefits of Reservoirs in the Irrigated Agriculture

Abstract

In the Jordan Valley of Jordan, the demand for water and ability to control its location, timing, quality, and quantity are becoming critical. The competition for water between the urban and agricultural sectors is increasing. There is a general trend in Jordan to reduce water allocated for agricultural use. Increasing the price of irrigation water or restricting the planted areas of water consuming crops, such as bananas, has been implemented during the recent growing season. The main objective of this paper is to highlight the impact of optimal allocation of irrigation water by building storage capacity on the economy of Jordan Valley. A linear programming technique is used, and the main results show that for proper management of water storage capacity, the suggested cropping pattern would generate $88.2 million, whereas the actual cropping pattern generated $74.4 million. The optimal water demand schedule is distributed according to the needs of the planted crops, and water demand has been allocated in an efficient way. In addition, appropriate management of storage capacity has solved the problem of water scarcity during the summer months, when peak production takes place. Storage-transfer system between locations played a significant role in reallocating irrigation water through the storage system. This compensates to a high degree in keeping the agricultural production more stable in physical and monetary units.     

Application of Decision Support System for Sustainable Management of Water Resources in the Azraq Basin—Jordan

Abstract

Water scarcity in Jordan is a significant constraint to development, with limited available water and financial resources. As population and economic activity increase, it will be necessary to implement national strategies that seek to balance the present needs and those of future generations. Multiple variables associated with agricultural crops, industries, and the impact of climate change, were incorporated into a Decision Support System (DSS). The DSS utilized Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), which resulted in the prioritization of sustainable water policies for management in the Azraq Basin. The inputs to the DSS were generated through application of Modflow (groundwater), stochastic, and Penman Montieth models and through calculations of water productivity for agricultural and industrial sectors. The results of the DSS make recommendations as to how to enhance long-term sustainability of water resources in Azraq, while allowing for water utilization and economic growth. It is recommended for future planning that further research of the impacts to water resources must be conducted at local and national levels and linked to regional and global climate change prediction. It can be concluded that the DSS tool and AHP are potentially positive contributions to the process of decision- making for selection and ranking of alternatives and policies and for help in solving problems that include conflicting criteria.     

A Framework for Wastewater Reuse in Jordan: Utilizing a Modified Wastewater Reuse Index

Pressing water scarcity in Jordan rapidly increases the demands of marginal water resources for the agricultural sector. Water management studies reveal that no single source could fully solve the nation??s water shortage and many integrated actions are needed to ensure water availability, suitability and sustainability. Yet, among these options treated wastewater has the largest potential to augment water supply in the near future, thereby narrowing the gap between available freshwater and total demand. Indeed, treated wastewater could be a valuable source for irrigation in the agricultural sector and an increasing percentage of irrigated areas, especially in the Jordan Valley, are currently using treated wastewater. With a fast growing population and expansion of the irrigated areas to meet food demand, the pressure on water resources in Jordan remains of imminent importance. Hence, an urgent call to analyze the current and potential role of treated wastewater seems justified. Under the umbrella of the project on the Sustainable Management of Available Water Resources with Innovative Technologies (SMART) funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research in Germany, an investigation has been carried out in the Jordan Valley to estimate the current wastewater reuse quantities and the potential to increase its utility for agricultural production. In general, the reuse as percentage of total treatment is applied for national and international comparisons. Yet, this index is of limited use for policy decisions as it does not reflect potentialities of wastewater use. Therefore, this study introduces a wastewater reuse index (WRI) that reflects the actual proportion of wastewater reused from the total generated wastewater. We found that the WRI in Jordan steadily increased from 30% in 2004 to 38 in 2007. Efficient use of treated wastewater requires the application of new technologies in Jordan like dwellings connected to the sewer system, decentralization of treatment plants to rural and urban settlements and prevention of high evaporation rates from stabilization ponds.     

Integrated Water Resources Management in the Republic of Uzbekistan

Abstract

The Uzbek socio-economic structure is characterized by the transition from a centrally-planned to a market-orientated economy, with a shifting from agricultural production to industrial development. However, the agricultural sector continues to play a significant role in a general economy of the country. The major water sector strategy is to decrease the dependence of agricultural production on climate by introducing advanced irrigation techniques and water saving methods to achieve future sustainable socio-economic development and environmental protection. Water management policy should be flexible enough to adapt to new demands. The regulation of consumption through demand management tools, such as appropriate pricing policies, has recently received greater attention in Uzbekistan. The main thesis of this paper is that allocation of water resources cannot be separated from ecological and economic considerations. The establishment of development objectives and the identification of constraints are also discussed. In the coming years, special attention will need to be paid to the control of water pollution and land salinization, water resources conservation, and acknowledging that actions to increase water productivity are as important as finding additional sources of water.     

基于AquaGIS模型的盈科灌区制种玉米农业用水效率分析

盈科灌区是黑河流域中游绿洲典型灌区之一,该灌区农业用水效率较低,农业用水矛盾十分突出。制种玉米是灌区主要种植作物,研究制种玉米的优化灌溉制度对实现该区域农业用水可持续发展具有十分重要的意义。利用分布式作物模型AquaGIS模型,基于盈科灌区土壤质地的空间变异性对该灌区制种玉米灌溉制度进行了优化,提出了适合灌区实际配水情况的最佳灌溉制度。通过灌溉制度优化,灌区制种玉米蒸散发量减少36~53mm,水分生产率WPET增加5%左右,灌溉水生产率WPI增加25%~48%,极大地提高了灌区农业用水效率。同时,对该灌区不同水文年灌溉制度进行优化,综合对比灌区制种玉米WPET、WPI和产量,其中丰水年灌溉3次、平水年灌溉4次、枯水年灌溉5次可以实现农业用水效率最高,为灌区高效节水灌溉提供理论指导。     

黏弹性人工边界地震动输入方法及实现

本文对实现黏弹性边界的常用方法进行了总结,对相应于黏弹性边界的地震动输入公式进行了详细推导,把自由场应力的求解也转化为自由场速度的求解,简化了地震动输入公式,并给出了地震动输入的简化方法。基于ABAQUS软件,进行算例分析并和理论解进行对比,验证了各种黏弹性边界实现方式及本文地震动输入方法的合理性和正确性。最后,对大朝山重力坝典型挡水坝段进行地震响应分析,通过施加黏弹性边界并输入相应地震动,评价了无限地基辐射阻尼的影响,并与无质量地基模型的计算结果进行了比较。结果表明,考虑辐射阻尼效应后坝体地震响应明显降低,故在实际工程抗震分析时对其影响应予以适当考虑。     

Application of Expert and Decision Support Systems for Optimizing Water Supply in the Jordan Valley

Abstract

Expert System (ES) and Decision Support System (DSS) are becoming essential tools that support decision makers, professionals, and managers in their efforts to operate, control, and develop decisions on a sound and integrated basis. Applications of ES and DSS are not limited to a certain sector or field, but are typically used in sectors that involve management and planning. The purpose of this paper is to elaborate on the application of these systems in Jordan and specifically in managing and operating the water demand and supply of the main water carrier in the Jordan Valley, the King Abdullah Canal (KAC). This canal extends from the upper part of the valley at Adasiya down to the Dead Sea with a total length of 110 km connecting one of the most complicated irrigation and conveyance systems in the region. At present, the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA), which is responsible for all the activities in the Jordan Valley, is operating and managing the water of KAC using the JVA Water Management Information System (WMIS) and JVA Hydraulic Model. After five years of implementing this management system, there was enough information to analyze and evaluate it as well as to determine the areas of shortcomings. This paper focuses on analyzing these results and providing the necessary recommendations. These recommendations are in the form of software and hardware that will improve using both the Expert System and Knowledge Base System and make it a successful model of water optimization for the country and region.     

作物生产水足迹量化方法与评价研究

农业用水效率评价是农业水资源管理的基础。作物生产水足迹有效的统一了旱作、灌溉农业以及不同尺度的水分利用效率评价指标,为农业水资源管理提供了新的评价指标与工具。本文在现有作物生产水足迹量化方法的基础上,提出了基于区域耗水量和区域用水量的作物生产水足迹量化方法,形成了三种适用于不同评价目标和尺度的量化方法。以中国大陆为研究对象,利用不同方法对小麦水足迹进行量化,探讨了三种方法的特点和适用性。研究表明三种量化方法具有各自的适用范围和科学内涵,基于田间作物蒸发蒸腾量所得到的作物生产水足迹能够反映田间尺度水分利用效率、农业资源禀赋;基于区域耗水量的计算方法能够反映区域尺度水分利用效率、农业资源禀赋和区域耗水特性;基于区域用水量的水足迹量化方法能够反映区域尺度水分利用效率、灌溉系统运行水平与农业生产用水量。鉴于三种作物生产水足迹量化方法的差异性,在进行水足迹量化评价时,需根据具体的研究尺度和评价目标确定作物生产水足迹量化方法,使量化和评价结果更为科学合理。     

Policy Options to Improve Water Allocation Efficiency: Analysis on Egypt and Morocco

Abstract

Because of political risk, economic feasibility, and cultural concerns, it has been a great challenge for economists to provide palatable remedies to governments to promote water allocation efficiency. Considering the limitation of water pricing to irrigation water, this research addresses questions of which strategic policy alternatives to water pricing might improve irrigation water allocation efficiency. An empirical framework is provided to compare irrigation policies for allocating scarce water to agricultural production in Egypt and Morocco. Partial-equilibrium agricultural sector models specific to Egypt and Morocco were employed for policy tests. Consumer and producer surplus from agricultural based commodities is maximized subject to various resources, technical, and policy constraints. Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) was used to calibrate the model. Water pricing policy, water complementary input factor tax policy, and output tax policy are tested using these two agricultural sector models. Results suggest that effective policy depends on the social, economic, and environmental contexts of specific regions. For countries like Egypt where most agricultural land is irrigated, taxes on Nitrogen (N) fertilizer and energy and output tax on water-intensive and low profit crop production may be more effective than others. For the Moroccan case, taxation on crop inputs and outputs not only affect water use in the public irrigation sector, but also private irrigation sector and rain-fed as a whole. Water pricing and output tax policies are better suited and effective than water complementary input factor taxation. Findings from Morocco might be generalized to other countries with similar irrigation characteristics and diversity in irrigated (public and private) and rain-fed land. The results for both countries demonstrate that some of the strategic irrigation policies can work towards directing cropping decisions to less water intensive crops and also generating revenues for governments in situations where governments choose not to price water.     

Satellite Remote Sensing for Estimating Productivities of Land and Water

Satellite remote sensing offers the capability of objectively measuring spatiotemporalland surface parametersthat can provide information critical to irrigation performance studies. This study demonstrates the use of satellite remote sensing to identify the spatially distributed patterns of wheat yield and crop evapotranspirationfor the Bhakra command area (1.2 million ha), in the Haryana State of north-west India. For the first time, satellite remote sensing has been used to obtain estimates of productivity per unit of water consumed by crop evapotranspiration,a key indicator of the performance of irrigated agriculture. It is shown that areas with the highest grain yield correspond to the areas having the highest evapotranspiration.Consequently, the spatial variations in crop production per unit evapotranspiration are less (cv = 0.10) than spatial variations in productivity of land (cv = 0.17). Whereas head- and tail-end differences in three major branch canals were found for productivity of land, this trend was not detected for the productivity of water consumed. Causal factors for the spatial patterns of productivity need to be more thoroughly investigated. While calculation approaches are suggested to estimate productivity of land and water using satellite remote sensing, further research is required to refine these techniques. Better estimations of the productivity of land and water will allow for more detailed and objective performance studies at a range of scales from individual farm fields to entire irrigation schemes. It will help scientists understand productivity issues better, and enable water managers and policy makers to support improvements in the utilization of land and water resources.     

Towards a water–energy–food nexus policy: realizing the blue and green virtual water of agriculture in Jordan

Virtual water is an important addendum to how we view a country's water resources. This study examines the virtual water embedded in Jordan's agricultural produce and its impact on future water–energy–food policies. Blue and green virtual waters are calculated from data on rainfall, crop patterns, yields, and water requirements at the district level. Results highlight the advantages of blue water usage in the Jordan Valley and of harnessing more available green water in the Highlands, with both displaying low energy impact. Results also emphasize the high groundwater usage and energy footprint in the Desert regions, signalling a need to rein in groundwater extraction and take advantage of solar power.     

基于多源遥感数据和水量平衡原理的灌溉用水量分析

农业灌溉水量估算和区域农业用水的校核是用水统计、监管的难点。现行基于典型调查和定额推算的方法依赖统计人员经验,易受人为因素干扰,准确性难以控制;采用基于水量平衡的灌溉用水推算方法时,区域蓄水变量和耗水量等要素仅依靠传统地面监测条件难以获取。遥感技术能够解决水量平衡方程中区域蓄水变量和蒸散发的估算问题,可以提高水量平衡方法在计算灌溉用水中应用的可行性,但大多数遥感产品存在区域适用性和精度的问题,需要将多种产品结合,通过相互校验和组合控制误差;此外,遥感产品与水量平衡要素之间还存在一定程度的概念差异,需要进行匹配与转换。本文构建了一种基于多源遥感数据和水量平衡原理的灌溉用水分析方法,利用区域水量平衡方程检验多源遥感数据的一致性和可靠性,建立遥感数据与水量平衡要素的对应关系,选取合理的区域蒸散发数据,再利用田间水量平衡将总蒸散发分解为降水蒸散发和灌溉蒸散发,推算得到灌溉耗水量和灌溉用水量的合理范围。应用本文提出的方法进行山东省济南市2012—2015年灌溉用水分析,并与济南市水资源公报统计的农业用水进行对比,结果表明:在降水量接近多年平均的2012、2013、2015年,二者结果较为接近;在干旱的2014年,本文的分析结果与公报结果相差较大。结合同期农田作物长势、区域地下水位变化分析,认为该年份存在较大的灌溉用水,本文结果比较合理。本文方法可为校核区域灌溉用水统计数据的合理性提供技术支撑。     

SIMETAW# - a Model for Agricultural Water Demand Planning

A successful water management scheme for irrigated crops requires an integrated approach, which accounts for water, soil, and crop management. SIMETAW# is a user friendly soil water balance model that assesses crop water use, irrigation requirements, and generates hypothetical irrigation schedules for a wide range of crops experiencing full or deficit irrigation. SIMETAW# calculates reference evapotranspiration (ET_o), and it computes potential crop evapotranspiration (ET_c), and the evapotranspiration of applied water (ET_aw), which is the amount of irrigation water needed to match losses from the effective soil root zone due to ET_c that are not replaced by precipitation and other sources. Using input information on crop and soil characteristics and the distribution uniformity of infiltrated irrigation applications in full or deficit conditions, the model estimates the mean depth of infiltrated water (IW) into each quarter of the field. The impact of deficit irrigation on the actual crop evapotranspiration (ET_a) is computed separately for each of the four quarters of the cropped field. SIMETAW# simulation adjusts ET_o estimates for projected future CO₂ concentration, and hence the model can assess climate change impacts on future irrigation demand allowing the user to propose adaptation strategies that potentially lead to a more sustainable water use. This paper discusses the SIMETAW# model and evaluates its performance on estimating ET_c, ET_a, and ET_aw for three case studies.     

Water Planning in Jordan

Abstract

This paper present a shift in water planning in Jordan from supply-side water management to more integrated and demand-driven water management. Assessment of existing water supply and demand is presented and strategies are outlined. Potential available water resources and uses are presented. Strategies to meet unsatisfied water demand are presented. These include use of nonconventional water resources, privatization, efficiency enhancement in distribution systems, and demand management. Scenarios for sustainable water management are developed. Each scenario was based on combinations of the role of government in the water sector and the national financial situation. Comparisons among these scenarios were performed for the case of Jordan and a set of recommendations are stated.     

Water Resources Management under Competitive Sectoral Demand A Case Study from Jordan

Abstract

Jordan is a country plagued with water scarcity. The annual per capita share of water is currently estimated at 170 m³ and the figure is expected to drop to 90 m³ in the year 2020 as a result of the disproportional increase in population relative to water resources development. Moreover, about 70 percent of the country's water resources are consumed in irrigated agriculture. For most crops growing in all areas and seasons and managed with different production technologies, analysis of net return from unit volume of irrigation water showed, with few exceptions, low values pertaining to production under protected agriculture. Such a result indicated unjustified waste of water in the agricultural sector at the expense of the domestic sector. This paper reviews current challenges facing water management in the country and proposes short- and long-term alternative solutions.     

Assessing Crop Water Demand by Remote Sensing and GIS for the Pontina Plain, Central Italy

An estimation of the crop water requirements for the Pontina Plain, Central Italy, was carried out through the use of remote sensing land classification and application of a simple water balance scheme in a GIS environment. The overall crop water demand for the 700 km² area was estimated at about 70 Mm³ year^− 1, i.e. 100 Mm³ year^− 1 irrigation requirements when considering an average irrigation application efficiency of 70%. The simplest and least demanding available methodology, in terms of data and resources, was chosen. The methodology, based on remote sensing and GIS, employed only 4 Landsat ETM+ images and a few meteorological and geographical vectorial layers. The procedure allowed the elaboration of monthly maps of crop evapotranspiration. The application of a spatially distributed simple water balance model, lead to the estimation of temporal and spatial variation of crop water requirements in the study area. This study contributes to fill a gap in the knowledge on agricultural use of water resources in the area, which is essential for the implementation of a sustainable and sound water policy as required in the region for the application of the EU Water Framework Directive.     

Impact of agricultural development on evapotranspiration trends in the irrigated districts of Pakistan: evidence from 1981 to 2012

Understanding time-series evapotranspiration trends is critical for water-balance assessments and sustainable water management in arid regions. In this paper, an approach is presented to understand time-series evapotranspiration trends by combining remote sensing-based evapotranspiration and agricultural statistics data and applying them to understand district-level water-use trends in the Indus basin irrigation system of Pakistan. The evapotranspiration of most districts in the Punjab increased over the period, whereas in Sindh it generally remained about the same or decreased. The trends in Punjab suggests that the already unsustainable groundwater use in some areas may become more unsustainable.     

Hydrology of the Jordan River Basin: Watershed Delineation, Precipitation and Evapotranspiration

The Jordan River Basin is shared between Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan and Palestine; the waters of the River are a critical resource for the future water security of the co-riparians. Because of the political situation in the region, field data such as rainfall and evapotranspiration are very difficult to obtain making the use of remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) very useful to study water availability in the basin. The approach used in this paper integrates recently compiled data derived from satellite imagery (evapotranspiration, rainfall, and digital elevation model) into a GIS geodatabase to measure the contribution of each riparian country to the total available water in the basin.     

Groundwater Depletion in the Jordan Highlands: Can Pricing Policies Regulate Irrigation Water Use?

Jordan is one of the countries with the scarcest water resources in the world. The aquifers of the Lower Jordan River Basin, a region of prime importance for the country, are exploited well beyond their sustainable rate. In 1997, Jordan’s officials designed a new water strategy, with emphasis on demand-management instruments. Water pricing policies, and notably the bylaw no. 85 of 2002, were deemed to assist in controlling agricultural groundwater abstraction with the ambitious task of taking the abstraction rate close to the annual recharge. While much hope has been placed in such strategies, this paper argues that substantial increases in volumetric charges would not result in major water savings but would further decrease the income from low-value or extensive crops. A shift towards high-value crops would raise water productivity but would also entail a transfer of wealth to the government and to wealthier entrepreneurs. It is therefore essential that negative incentives be accompanied by positive measures offering attractive alternatives (market opportunities, subsidies for modernization, technical advice, etc.) and exit options with compensation. Prices are unlikely to enable regulation of groundwater abstraction and significant reduction will only be achieved through policies that reduce the number of wells in use, such as buying out of wells.