高分辨micro-SPECT成像系统针孔准直器的优化设计

为了最大限度地减少γ射线在针孔准直器上的透射和散射效应,采用蒙特卡罗方法对单光子发射计算机断层(SPECT)成像系统使用的针孔准直器进行优化.模拟计算结果与实验测试得到的系统灵敏度和空间分辨率曲线相符,达到了高分辨小动物成像的要求.     

Quantification of the Multiplexing Effects in Multi-Pinhole Small Animal SPECT: A Simulation Study

Our goal is to study the trade-off between image degradation and improved detection efficiency and resolution from allowing multiplexing in multi-pinhole (MPH) SPECT, and to determine the optimal pinhole number for MPH design. We used an analytical 3D MPH projector and two digitized phantoms: the mouse whole body (MOBY) phantom and a hot sphere phantom to generate noise-free and noisy projections, simulating pinhole collimators fitted with pre-studied pinhole patterns. We performed three schemes to achieve different degrees of multiplexing: 1. Fixed magnification and detection efficiency; 2. Fixed detection efficiency and changed magnification; 3. Fixed magnification and changed detection efficiency. We generated various noisy data sets by simulating Poisson noise using differently scaled noise-free projections and obtained 20 noise realizations for each setting. All datasets were reconstructed using 3D MPH ML-EM reconstruction method. We analyzed the quantitative accuracy by the normalized-mean-square-error. We evaluated the image contrast for the hot sphere phantom simulation, and also the image noise by the average normalized-standard-deviation of certain pixels for different degrees of multiplexing. Generally, no apparent artifacts were observed in the reconstructed images, illustrating the effectiveness of reconstructions. Bias increased for increased degree of multiplexing. Contrast was not significantly affected by multiplexing in the specific simulation scheme (1). Scheme (2) showed that excessive multiplexing to improve image resolution would not improve the overall trade-off of bias and noise compared to no multiplexing. However, scheme (3) showed that when comparing to no multiplexing, the trade-off improved initially with increased multiplexing by allowing more number of pinholes to improve detection efficiency. The trade-off reached a maximum and decreased with further multiplexing due to image degradation from increased bias. The optimal pinhole number was 7 for a compact camera with size of 12 cm × 12 cm and 9 for a standard gamma camera with size of 40 cm × 40 cm in this scheme. We conclude that the gains in improved detection efficiency and resolution by increased multiplexing are offset by increased image degradations. All the aforementioned factors must be considered in the optimum MPH collimator design for small animal SPECT imaging.     

高能γ光子成像针孔准直器的解析设计方法

在对高辐射环境进行射线源分布成像时,需要为γ相机设计专门的用于高能光子成像的针孔准直器。为了简化针孔准直器的设计过程,使用几个新的解析公式来描述准直器各参数与性能间的关系。首先,采用解析方法推导了更通用的有效孔径公式、角分辨率公式和几何相对效率公式;然后,与采用蒙特卡罗方法模拟计算得到的数值进行比较。结果表明,解析方法提供的计算结果在一定范围内准确可靠。因此,本工作使用的针孔准直器解析设计方法简单方便,物理图像清晰,具有一定的实用价值。     

高分辨率小动物SPECT成像系统的设计与性能评估

为实现低成本、高分辨率的小动物单光子发射断层成像(SPECT),设计了一种基于临床探测器和针孔准直器的小动物SPECT成像系统。综合考虑视野尺寸、空间分辨率和绝对探测效率等指标,分别给出了单针孔和七针孔准直器的两种最优化设计方案,并通过对比两种设计方案在全视野范围内的平均空间分辨率和探测效率,对成像性能进行了评估。结果表明,与单孔准直器相比采用七针孔准直器设计可同时获得更高的空间分辨率和探测效率。经蒙特卡罗模拟成像实验验证,该七针孔准直器在临床探测器上可达0.5mm级的超高空间分辨率,且成本远低于采用专用探测器的现有小动物SPECT系统。     

Monte-Carlo simulation of pinhole collimator of a small field of view gamma camera for small animal imaging

Needs in scintimammography applications,especially for small animal cardiac imaging,lead to develop a small field of view,high spatial resolution gamma camera with a pinhole collimator.However the ideal pinhole collimator must keep a compromise between spatial resolution and sensitivity.In order to design a pinhole collimator with an optimized sensitivity and spatial resolution,the spatial resolution and the geometric sensitivity response as a function of the source to collimator distance has been obtained by means of Monte-Carlo simulation for a small field of view gamma camera with a pinhole collimator of various-hole diameters.The results show that the camera with pinhole of 1 mm,1.5 mm and 2 mm diameter has respectively spatial resolution of 1.5 mm,2.25 mm and 3 mm and geometric sensitivity of 0.016%,0.022% and 0.036%,while the source to collimator distance is 3 cm.We chose the pinhole collimator with hole diameter size of 1.2 mm for our the gamma camera designed based on the wade-off between sensitivity and resolution.     

A high-resolution small animal SPECT system developed at Tsinghua

An SPECT system dedicated to small animal imaging shall be of a millimeter spatial resolution or even better.This study was aimed at achieving 0.5-mm spatial resolution for a small animal SPECT system at low cost.It was developed from a single-head clinical SPECT scanner,with a seven-pinhole collimator and a four-degree-offreedom motion control stage.Several key techniques were developed,including high-resolution image reconstruction algorithm,high accuracy geometrical calibration method,and optimized system matrix derivation scheme.The system matrix was derived from Monte-Carlo simulation and de-noised by fitting each point spread function to a two dimensional Gaussian function.Experiments of point source and ultra micro hot rod phantom were conducted.With a spatial resolution of 0.5-0.6 mm,this system provides a practical way for low-cost high-resolution animal imaging on a clinic SPECT system.     

Characteristics of parallel-hole and pinhole collimators for nuclear medicine imaging

In this paper,the spatial resolution and geometry sensitivity of parallel- and pin-hole collimators in compact gamma camera are presented,and quantitatively compared by GEANT4 code in Monte-Carlo library.The results show that the geometry sensitivity for pinhole collimator rapidly drops with increasing the gamma source-to- collimator distance(SCD);and for parallel-hole collimator,mildly.Meanwhile,the spatial resolution for pin-hole collimator mildly deteriorates;and for parallel-hole collimator,severely.The pin-hole collimator for close imaging objects has higher geometry sensitivity than parallel-hole collimator.Our findings are helpful for setting compact gamma camera collimators in nuclear medicine imaging.     

Performance characterization and first clinical evaluation of aintra-operative compact gamma imager

The growing interest of cancer surgeons in intra-operative probes has led to the development of several prototypes of high resolution mini gamma cameras. The aim of this paper is to present a global characterization of the one that we developed and the corresponding first evaluation in a clinical context. The current prototype of POCI (per-operative compact imager) is a 24 mm diameter intensified position sensitive diode optically coupled to a scintillation crystal plate and a novel parallel hole tungsten collimator. In order to face the various clinical situations, two sets of collimator/scintillator imaging heads have been developed either for high spatial resolution or high efficiency purposes. Both of them have first been optimized for ^99m Tc labeled tumor detection. Performances of POCI for these two head modules are presented using phantom studies. The results show spatial resolution values ranging between 1 and 1.9 mm (without significant distortion) and a corresponding detection efficiency ranging from 6·10^-3 up to 0.2 events/kBq/sec. Finally, first clinical evaluation of this new high-resolution compact camera concerned sentinel lymph node imaging which is included in melanoma and breast cancer staging protocols. Preliminary results already demonstrate that the performance characteristics of POCI are compatible with intra-operative imaging purposes and suggest how such mini-cameras can improve the success rate of tumor removal surgeries     

Development of a low-energy high resolution X-ray camera for high-energy gamma photon background environments

Although a high-energy gamma camera can obtain images of ¹³⁷Cs distribution by detecting the 662-keV gamma photons, its spatial resolution is reduced because high-energy gamma photons penetrate the edge of the pinhole collimator. To solve this problem, we developed a low-energy X-ray camera that detects the characteristic X-ray photons (32–37 keV) that are emitted from ¹³⁷Cs to obtain high resolution images. We used a 45 × 45 × 1-mm-thick NaI(Tl) scintillator that was encapsulated in 0.1-mm-thick aluminum and optically coupled to a 2-inch square, position sensitive photomultiplier tube (Hamamatsu Photonics, PSPMT:H12700 MOD) as an imaging detector. The imaging detector was encased in a 2-cm-thick tungsten alloy container and a pinhole collimator was attached to its camera head. The spatial resolution and sensitivity were ～5 mm full-width at half-maximum and ～0.6 cps/MBq for the 1.5-mm pinhole collimator 10 cm from the collimator surface, respectively. We administered 5 MBq of ¹³⁷Cs to a soybean seedling, imaged the distribution of radionuclides for six hours, and successfully obtained a high resolution image of it with our developed X-ray camera. We believe our camera will be a powerful tool for such ¹³⁷Cs imaging in plants.     

高分辨针孔SPECT三维图像重建的实现

采用一种新颖的查找表法来实施有序子集期望值最大化（OSEM）的针孔SPECT图像重建算法,有效地将针孔响应修正包含在查找表中,进而实现高分辨针孔SPECT的三维图像重建。标准Jaszczak模具的成像实验结果表明：该方法不但能显著减少图像重建过程的计算时间和内存占用,且能显著改善重建图像的分辨率。因此,查找表法是能够快速实现针孔SPECTOSEM图像重建算法,并能将针孔响应修正包含在查找表中以获取高分辨断层图像的有效方法。     

X射线源针孔成像系统优化设计研究

为提高X射线源针孔成像系统的性能,对成像能区为10~100 keV的X射线源针孔成像系统进行了优化设计研究。综合应用了理论分析和蒙特卡罗模拟的方法,首先根据X射线波长、准直器角响应和X射线穿透效应对针孔成像的不同影响结果设计了可有效控制成像分辨率和成像面积变化的船底型准直器,随后用蒙特卡罗方法对使用该准直器的针孔成像系统进行了模拟验证。结果表明,对于100 keV以下的X射线,经船底型准直器后,成像的空间分辨率和亮斑亮度较稳定,能得到相对准确的X射线源定位、定量信息。     

基于LaBr3(Ce)晶体耦合SiPM阵列的可变角分辨率伽玛相机的设计与研制

编码孔径成像技术由于探测效率高、信噪比高、角分辨率好、成像质量稳定可靠等优点而广泛应用于核安全、核设施的去污及退役的测量、核医学等领域。建立通过改变编码准直器和探测器之间距离进而实现可变角分辨的伽玛成像系统。整个成像系统主要由编码准直器、位置灵敏探测(position sensitive detector, PSD)、数据采集卡以及图像重建系统组成。该成像系统的编码准直器采用修正均匀冗余阵列(modified uniformly redundant array, MURA)编码方式,为了保障对较高能量射线的探测能力,编码准直器的材料采用含钨量90%的钨铜合金,PSD通过LaBr₃(Ce)晶体耦合SiPM阵列组成,重建算法采用的是直接互卷积算法,快速高效。测试结果显示,整个位置灵敏探测器的平均能量分辨率为4.96%(662 keV);该辐射成像系统可以准确地对Am-241、Cs-137、Co-60进行清晰成像,并通过改变编码准直器和探测器之间的距离成功分辨出两个Cs-137点源的位置。     

Pinhole collimator design for nuclear survey system

A conventional knife-edge collimator, which is widely used in gamma camera for medical diagnosis, is not suitable for nuclear imaging system because many scattering radiations near the pinhole aperture happen and blur image. A new pinhole collimator, which shapes a channeled aperture for reducing image degradation induced by the scattering radiations, is introduced and its characteristics are analyzed by Monte Carlo simulation. Resolutions defined as the full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of point spread function and efficiencies are calculated about several pinhole diameters from 4 to 8 mm and channel heights from 2 to 10 mm. For this calculation, we assumed that ¹³⁷Cs radiation sources with 662 keV mono-energies enter into our designed collimator at the 1 m distance from the detector plane. The efficiencies and resolutions of the channeled collimator are compared with those of the conventional collimator. By comparison results, it is verified that the new collimator takes advantage more than the conventional collimator. The optimum channel height and diameter of the pinhole collimator from simulation results are also proposed and designed. We finally acquired nuclear image mounting this collimator in the nuclear survey system.     

Lead and tungsten pinhole inserts for I-131 SPECT tumor imaging:experimental measurements and photon transport simulations

The potential use of lead and tungsten pinhole inserts for high-resolution SPECT imaging of intratumor activity in I-131 radioimmunotherapy was investigated using experimental point source measurements and photon transport simulations. I-131 imaging is challenging because the primary photon emission is at 364 keV and penetration through the insert near the pinhole aperture is significant. Point source response functions (PSRF's) for lead (Pb) and tungsten (W) pinhole inserts were measured experimentally. These response functions were simulated using a photon transport computer code that modeled the primary emission at 364 keV and secondary emissions at 284, 637, and 723 keV. Scatter within the pinhole insert, camera shielding, and scintillation crystal was modeled. There was good agreement between the experimental and simulated PSRF's. Simulated point source response functions for geometrically identical Pb and W pinhole inserts were narrower for the W insert due to reduced penetration. SPECT pinhole imaging with these inserts was simulated for 3-cm-diameter tumors with a central core and 3-5-mm-thick shells. For one set of simulations there was no core activity, and for a second set the shell:core activity concentration ratio was 5:1. In both cases, the tumor shells were better resolved with the W insect. As a result, shell:core activity ratios were more accurate and contrast was improved with the use of the W pinhole insert. This study suggests that W inserts have potential advantages over Pb inserts for high-resolution I-131 pinhole imaging     

区域γ辐射定向监测仪准直器的设计

为区域γ辐射分布定向监测实验相机系统设计了一个针孔准直器。应用针孔准直器的解析公式,根据探测器内在分辨率和实验相机系统的预期分辨率,考虑探测器尺寸,确定了相机的焦距及准直器的张角;然后根据预期角分辨率计算有效孔径,得出孔径和孔深的范围;再利用蒙特卡罗方法模拟面源入射,在各种孔径和孔深组合中,挑选出透射和散射光子份额最小的组为最优组,对应孔径和孔深参数即为最优参数。     

Phantom experiments on a PSAPD-based compact gamma camera with submillimeter spatial resolution for small animal SPECT

We demonstrate a position sensitive avalanche photodiode (PSAPD) based compact gamma camera for the application of small animal single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). The silicon PSAPD with a two-dimensional resistive layer and four readout channels is implemented as a gamma ray detector to record the energy and position of radiation events from a radionuclide source. A 2 mm thick monolithic CsI:Tl scintillator is optically coupled to a PSAPD with a 8mm×8mm active area, providing submillimeter intrinsic spatial resolution, high energy resolution (16% full-width half maximum at 140 keV) and high gain. A mouse heart phantom filled with an aqueous solution of 370 MBq (99m)Tc-pertechnetate (140 keV) was imaged using the PSAPD detector module and a tungsten knife-edge pinhole collimator with a 0.5 mm diameter aperture. The PSAPD detector module was cooled with cold nitrogen gas to suppress dark current shot noise. For each projection image of the mouse heart phantom, a rotated diagonal readout algorithm was used to calculate the position of radiation events and correct for pincushion distortion. The reconstructed image of the mouse heart phantom demonstrated reproducible image quality with submillimeter spatial resolution (0.7 mm), showing the feasibility of using the compact PSAPD-based gamma camera for a small animal SPECT system.     

An analytical simulation technique for cone-beam CT and pinhole SPECT

This study was aimed at developing an efficient simulation technique with an ordinary PC.The work involved derivation of mathematical operators,analytic phantom generations,and effective analytical projectors developing for cone-beam CT and pinhole SPECT imaging.The computer simulations based on the analytical projectors were developed by ray-tracing method for cone-beam CT and voxel-driven method for pinhole SPECT of degrading blurring.The 3D Shepp-Logan,Jaszczak and Defrise phantoms were used for simulation evaluations and image reconstructions.The reconstructed phantom images were of good accuracy with the phantoms.The results showed that the analytical simulation technique is an efficient tool for studying cone-beam CT and pinhole SPECT imaging.     

Implementation and preliminary investigation of analytical methodsfor correction of distance-dependent resolution variation and uniformattenuation in 3D brain SPECT

Spatial resolution variation as a function of distance from collimator surface in single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is a major obstacle for quantitative imaging. This work investigated two analytical inversion methods for correcting the distance-dependent resolution variation, as well as uniform attenuation in brain SPECT studies. The first one utilizes an accurately measured resolution variation kernel, but derives an approximated inversion formula. The second one derives an accurate inversion formula, but approximates the resolution variation kernel. Reconstructed images using the first method showed a better resolution recovery at the periphery of field-of-view (FOV), consistent with the theory that the inversion formula is approximated for far-field regions. The second method restored resolution better at the central area of FOV, consistent with the approach that the resolution kernel is approximated for near-field regions. The second method is more sensitive to the approximation. The first one is more robust to the approximation and, therefore, can be a better choice for quantitative SPECT imaging     

断层屏蔽SPECT的性能和蒙特卡罗模拟

断层屏蔽具有灵敏度高、采集时间短的特点,在临床应用中有很好的前景.通过物理模型和蒙特卡罗模拟计算,探讨了断层屏蔽SPECT的灵敏度、空间分辨率和信噪比,并提出不同半径的数据分组可以有效和直观的进行图像判别,便于图像重建.     

多平行束准直器模拟研究

在平行束准直器中引用多通道技术设计了三通道的多平行束（Multi-parallel Beam,MPB）准直器。计算机模拟表明,MPB准直器在保持较高的空间分辨率下,有效地改善了系统的灵敏度。放射药物匀均分布的圆柱数字模具和Jaszczak数字模具（phantom）模拟表明,随重叠比例的增加,未出现重建环状伪影;虽然靠近准直器表面空间分辨率有所下降,但在FOV（Field of View）中心区域空间分辨率近似等同于平行束准直器,重建图像的匀均度有了改善。投影数据的重叠表明,MPB的投影有放大作用。该研究为高成像质量的临床SPECT成像提供一种新的准直器设计方法。