Properties of controlled low-strength material made using industrial waste incineration bottom ash and quarry dust

Industrial waste incineration bottom ash and quarry dust are waste materials which, if reused, will contribute to sustainability. One of the potential uses of these materials in bulk quantities is in controlled low-strength material (CLSM). This paper evaluates the properties of controlled low-strength material (CLSM) made using industrial waste incineration bottom ash and quarry dust. Various mix proportions of CLSM containing bottom ash and quarry dust were developed and the properties evaluated. Tests were performed on the CLSM in fresh and hardened states involving flowability, stability, setting time, segregation resistance, California bearing ratio (CBR), and corrosivity and the results discussed. Results indicated that the setting time of the CLSM mixtures tested ranged from 3.7 to 8 h, the fresh density from 1539 to 2100 kg/m³, strength values from 0.22 to 11.42 MPa, mixtures were stable and no corrosivity. It is shown that addition of quarry dust enhanced the performance of CLSM made using bottom ash with regard to stability, strength, and CBR and hence both the industrial waste incineration bottom ash and quarry dust are potential materials for use in CLSM.     

Characterisation of ground hydrated Portland cement-based mortar as an additive to alkali-activated slag cement

The sustainable development of cement manufacturing requires extension of the raw material base, including large-tonnage waste. Hydrated mortar waste is a promising mineral resource for the production of Portland cements and alternative binders, such as alkali-activated slag cement. The influences of ground-hydrated mortar aged for 3 months on the properties of alkali-activated slag fresh and hardened pastes were performed. The results show that the properties are dependent on the concentration (2.5–60%), cement:sand ratio (1:1–3) and fineness (200–600 m²/kg) of the ground hydrated mortar; the alkali activator (sodium carbonate and sodium silicate); and the curing conditions (normal conditions and steam curing). The fresh paste properties that we considered in this study included the water requirement and the setting time; the hardened paste properties we considered were the water absorption, the density, and the compressive strength after 2, 7, 14, 28, 180 and 360 days of ageing. The ground hydrated mortar improved the early strength and the long-term strength of the alkali-activated slag paste and replaced the slag up to 50%. The factors that affecting the strength of the alkali-activated slag cement with ground hydrated mortar as an additive were, in order of influence, alkali activator type > curing conditions > cement:sand ratio > ground-hydrated mortar fineness.     

Behavior of self compacting concrete containing ladle furnace slag and steel fiber reinforcement

Self compacting concrete mixtures with the use of ladle furnace slag as filler and steel fibers as reinforcement were produced and tested in the laboratory. Different contents of ladle furnace slag filler, ranging from 60 to 120 kg/m³, and steel fibers, ranging from 0% to 0.7%, were used. The different mixtures were tested in the fresh state for fluidity, passing ability and resistance to segregation and in the hardened state for compressive strength, fracture toughness, freeze-thawing resistance and chloride penetration resistance. The test results showed that ladle furnace slag can be used as filler for self compacting concrete, as adequate consistency and workability was achieved, while compressive strength and durability were improved. Ladle furnace slag can also be combined with steel fibers, which considerably increase fracture toughness, in order to produce a high performance self compacting concrete using a low-cost industrial by-product such as ladle furnace slag.     

Alkali-activated cements and mortars based on blast furnace slag and red clay brick waste

This study investigates the effects of adding various concentrations, sources and compositions of ground red clay brick waste (RCBW) on the properties of fresh and hardened pastes and mortars of alkali-activated slag. The method used to grind the granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) and RCBW (separate and conjoint) is also assessed, along with the fineness (300–900 m²/kg) of the blended alkali-activated GBFS-RCBW cement, the alkali activator (sodium carbonate or sodium silicate) and the curing conditions (normal conditions or steam curing). The water requirement and setting time for the fresh pastes are also considered; and in the case of the hardened paste and mortar, the water absorption, density and compressive/flexural strength are measured after 1, 3, 7 and 28 days of aging. From the results obtained, it is demonstrated that the addition of 40% RCBW improves the 7- and 28-day strength of blended alkali-activated slag pastes and mortars, and can replace up to 60% of the slag without losing strength.     

Use of calcium carbide residue and bagasse ash mixtures as a new cementitious material in concrete

Calcium carbide residue (CCR) is a by-product of the acetylene gas production and bagasse ash (BA) is a by-product obtained from the burning of bagasse for electricity generation in the sugar industry. The mixture between CCR contains a high proportion of calcium hydroxide, while BA is a pozzolanic material, can produce a pozzolanic reaction, resulting in the products similar to those obtained from the cement hydration process. Thus, it is possible to use a mixture of CCR and BA as a cementitious material to substitute for Portland cement in concrete. The results indicated that concrete made with CCR and BA mixtures and containing 90 kg/m³ of Portland cement gave the compressive strength of 32.7 MPa at 28 days. These results suggested that the use of ground CCR and ground BA mixtures as a binder could reduce Portland cement consumption by up to 70% compared to conventional concrete that requires 300 kg/m³ of Portland cement to achieve the same compressive strength. In addition, the mechanical properties of the alternative concrete including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and elastic modulus were similar to that of conventional concrete.     

An experimental study on optimum usage of GGBS for the compressive strength of concrete

This paper presents a laboratory investigation on optimum level of ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) on the compressive strength of concrete. GGBS was added according to the partial replacement method in all mixtures. A total of 32 mixtures were prepared in four groups according to their binder content. Eight mixes were prepared as control mixtures with 175, 210, 245 and 280 kg/m³ cement content in order to calculate the Bolomey and Féret coefficients (K_B, K_F). For each group 175, 210, 245 and 280 kg/m³ dosages were determined as initial dosages, which were obtained by removing 30 percent of the cement content of control concretes with 250, 300, 350, and 400 kg/m³ dosages. Test concretes were obtained by adding GGBS to concretes in an amount equivalent to approximately 0%, 15%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 90% and 110% of cement contents of control concretes with 250, 300, 350 and 400 kg/m³ dosages. All specimens were moist cured for 7, 14, 28, 63, 119, 180 and 365 days before compressive strength testing.The test results proved that the compressive strength of concrete mixtures containing GGBS increases as the amount of GGBS increase. After an optimum point, at around 55% of the total binder content, the addition of GGBS does not improve the compressive strength. This can be explained by the presence of unreacted GGBS, acting as a filler material in the paste.     

Mechanical and durability properties of ternary concretes containing silica fume and low reactivity blast furnace slag

In this study, the effect of incorporation of silica fume in enhancing strength development rate and durability characteristics of binary concretes containing a low reactivity slag has been investigated. Binary concretes studied included mixes containing slag at cement replacement levels of 15%, 30% and 50% and mixes containing silica fume at cement replacement levels of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%. Ternary concretes included combinations of silica fume and slag at various cement replacement levels. The w/b ratio and total cementitious materials content were kept constant for all mixes at 0.38 and 420 kg/m³ respectively. Concrete mixes were evaluated for compressive strength, electrical resistance, chloride permeability (ASTM C1202 RCPT test) and chloride migration (AASHTO TP64 RCMT test), at various ages up to 180 days.The results show that simultaneous use of silica fume has only a moderate effect in improving the slow rate of strength gain of binary mixes containing low reactivity slag. However it improves their durability considerably. Using appropriate combination of low reactivity slag and silica fume, it is possible to obtain ternary mixes with 28 day strength comparable to the control mix and improve durability particularly in the long term. Ternary mixes also have the added advantage of reduced water demand.     

Copper slag as sand replacement for high performance concrete

This paper reports on an experimental program to investigate the effect of using copper slag as a replacement of sand on the properties of high performance concrete (HPC). Eight concrete mixtures were prepared with different proportions of copper slag ranging from 0% (for the control mix) to 100%. Concrete mixes were evaluated for workability, density, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength and durability. The results indicate that there is a slight increase in the HPC density of nearly 5% with the increase of copper slag content, whereas the workability increased rapidly with increases in copper slag percentage. Addition of up to 50% of copper slag as sand replacement yielded comparable strength with that of the control mix. However, further additions of copper slag caused reduction in the strength due to an increase of the free water content in the mix. Mixes with 80% and 100% copper slag replacement gave the lowest compressive strength value of approximately 80 MPa, which is almost 16% lower than the strength of the control mix. The results also demonstrated that the surface water absorption decreased as copper slag quantity increases up to 40% replacement; beyond that level of replacement, the absorption rate increases rapidly. Therefore, it is recommended that 40 wt% of copper slag can used as replacement of sand in order to obtain HPC with good strength and durability properties.     

Grey correlation analysis between strength of slag cement and particle fractions of slag powder

The particle size distributions of slag powder were investigated by Laser Scatter equipment. The influence of particle fractions of slag powder on the compressive strength of slag cement composed of 50% slag powder and 50% Portland cement was also studied by the method of grey correlation analysis. The results indicated that the volume fraction of particles 5–10 μm had a maximum positive effect on the mortar compressive strength of slag cement at 7 d and the volume fraction of particles 10–20 μm had a maximum positive effect on the mortar compressive strength at 28 d, whereas the volume fraction of particles larger than 20 μm had a negative effect on the mortar compressive strength at 7 and 28 d.     

Lightweight screed containing cork granules: Mechanical and hygrothermal characterization

This paper presents the results of an experimental study on the use of expanded cork granule waste with cement-based mixtures to produce lightweight screeds as an overlay of a structural concrete slab. Lightweight screeds (LWSs) were made with Portland cement, sand, expanded cork granules (ECG) and water. These cork particles are industrial waste and are still a completely natural material even after industrial processing. The experiments were carried out on 3 cement dosages of 150 kg/m³, 250 kg/m³ and 400 kg/m³, incorporating expanded cork granules as replacement of part of the sand. Three additional mixtures without cork were prepared and used as reference. They had the same cement content as the lightweight ones. Hardened density, compressive strength, thermal conductivity, water vapor permeability, adsorption isotherms and water absorption by partial immersion of the mixtures were determined. Results show that the addition of expanded cork granules affects the screeds by decreasing their density, compressive strength and thermal conductivity while increasing their water vapor permeability.     

Response Surface Methodology to optimize the cement paste mix design: Time-dependent contribution of fly ash and nano-iron oxide as admixtures

Response Surface Methodology with a three factor, two level (2³) face centered, central composite design showed that the optimum paste mix design with the water-to-binder at 36.0%, fly ash (FA)-to-binder at 29.5% and nano-iron oxide (NI)-to-binder at 0.78% produced a spread percentage of the fresh paste at 107.0% and, at the same time, compressive strengths of the hardened paste at 22.1, 60.4 and 79.8 MPa after 3, 28 and 90 days of curing, respectively. FA began to play a significant role for the compressive strength after 28 days of curing, whereas NI did after 90 days of curing, indicative of time-dependent contribution of FA and NI to the development of compressive strength. These were further supported by the SEM microstructure analysis. Such a delayed involvement of FA and NI in the cement chemistry should be taken into consideration with care when translating laboratory research results typically based on a 28-day strength to field practice where a shorter curing is typically provided for cost reasons.     

The hydration and microstructure of ultra high-strength concrete with cement–silica fume–slag binder

This study investigated the flowability, compressive strength, heat of hydration, porosity and calcium hydroxide content of ultra-high-strength concrete (UHSC) with cement–silica fume–slag binder at 20 °C. The composition of the binder was designed using seven-batch factorial design method. The relationships between the binder composition and the properties were expressed in contours. Results showed that proper silica fume content could improve the flowability and compressive strength of UHSC, reduce the porosity and calcium hydroxide content of UHSC. Slag reduced the flowability, compressive strength, porosity, and calcium hydroxide content of UHSC to certain extent. The silica fume and slag demonstrated positive synergistic effects on the flowability and 3 d compressive strength, but have negative synergistic effects on the total heat of hydration, hydration heat when the time is infinitely long(P₀), 56 d compressive strength, porosity and calcium hydroxide content of UHSC.     

Transport and mechanical properties of self consolidating concrete with high volume fly ash

This paper presents the transport and mechanical properties of self consolidating concrete that contain high percentages of low-lime and high-lime fly ash (FA). Self consolidating concretes (SCC) containing five different contents of high-lime FA and low-lime FA as a replacement of cement (30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 by weight of total cementitious material) are examined. For comparison, a control SCC mixture without any FA was also produced. The fresh properties of the SCCs were observed through, slump flow time and diameter, V-funnel flow time, L-box height ratio, and segregation ratio. The hardened properties included the compressive strength, split tensile strength, drying shrinkage and transport properties (absorption, sorptivity and rapid chloride permeability tests) up to 365 days. Test results confirm that it is possible to produce SCC with a 70% of cement replacement by both types of FA. The use of high volumes of FA in SCC not only improved the workability and transport properties but also made it possible to produce concretes between 33 and 40 MPa compressive strength at 28 days, which exceeds the nominal compressive strength for normal concrete (30 MPa).     

Engineering properties of lightweight aggregate concrete made from dredged silt

Silt dredged from reservoirs can be hydrated and sintered into lightweight aggregate for producing lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC). The densified mixture design algorithm (DMDA) was employed to manufacture LWAC using 150 kg/m³ of water at different water-to-binder ratios (w/b = 0.28, 0.32 and 0.4) using lightweight aggregates of different particle densities (800, 1100 and 1500 kg/m³). The engineering properties of the LWAC thus obtained were examined. Results show that the fresh concrete meets the design requirement of having slump of 250 ± 20 mm and slump flow of 600 ± 100 mm. With respect to hardened properties, the compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity and thermal conductivity were found to decrease with increasing w/b ratio but increase with increasing aggregate density. Moreover, higher aggregate density also resulted in less shrinkage. The surface resistivity exceeding 20 kΩ-cm also matched the design objective. The experimental results prove that LWAC made from dredged silt can help enhance durability of concrete.     

Statistical relationship between mix properties and the interfacial transition zone around embedded rebar

The relationship between concrete mix properties and the properties of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) formed around embedded rebar was investigated. Multiple samples of various mix compositions and bar orientations were prepared so as to represent common concrete technology. Water-to-cement ratios varied from 0.40 to 0.65 and powder (cement + limestone filler) contents ranged from 362 kg/m³ to 564 kg/m³. Over 1300 BSE images of the steel–concrete interface were taken and analyzed automatically. Statistical methods were used to identify correlations between ITZ properties and mix composition or fresh mix properties.A single large void was identified beneath all horizontal bars regardless of concrete composition. The ITZ around vertical bars was more uniform and extended around the entire rebar. No clear relationship was found between ITZ thickness and mix composition or fresh mix properties for either vertical or horizontal bar orientations. The degree of ITZ variability beneath horizontal bars clearly depends, however, on the bleeding properties of the mix. The distance from steel surface to the closest concrete solid, which influences the chemistry over the surface of the steel, is affected by precipitation of hydration products in horizontal bars, but not by mix composition.     

Properties of concrete made with alkali-activated fly ash lightweight aggregate (AFLA)

An experiment was performed to investigate the properties of the hardened paste of fly ash by alkali activation and to determine the possible use of the paste in the production of lightweight aggregates. The highest compressive strength was 33.9 MPa, for paste with 10% NaOH, 15% sodium silicate, and 5% MnO₂, cured at room temperature after 24 h of moisture curing at 50 °C. The hardened paste of fly ash was granulated to produce AFLA (alkali-activated fly ash lightweight aggregate). AFLA exhibited specific gravity (SSD, OD), water absorption, unit weight, and solid volume percentages of 1.85 (SSD), 1.66 (OD), 11.8%, 972 kg/m³, and 58.6%, respectively. The results of the heavy metals leaching test met US EPA regulations. The concrete using AFLA exhibited a compressive strength of 26.47 MPa and good freeze–thaw resistance at 6.0% entrained air content.     

Measuring the eco-efficiency of cement use

At present, the cement industry generates approximately 5% of the world’s anthropogenic CO₂ emissions. This share is expected to increase since demand for cement based products is forecast to multiply by a factor of 2.5 within the next 40 years and the traditional strategies to mitigate emissions, focused on the production of cement, will not be capable of compensating such growth. Therefore, additional mitigation strategies are needed, including an increase in the efficiency of cement use. This paper proposes indicators for measuring cement use efficiency, presents a benchmark based on literature data and discusses potential gains in efficiency. The binder intensity (bi) index measures the amount of binder (kg m^?3) necessary to deliver 1 MPa of mechanical strength, and consequently express the efficiency of using binder materials. The CO₂ intensity index (ci) allows estimating the global warming potential of concrete formulations. Research benchmarks show that bi ～5 kg m^?3 MPa^?1 are feasible and have already been achieved for concretes >50 MPa. However, concretes with lower compressive strengths have binder intensities varying between 10 and 20 kg m^?3 MPa^?1. These values can be a result of the minimum cement content established in many standards and reveal a significant potential for performance gains. In addition, combinations of low bi and ci are shown to be feasible.     

Development of alkali activated cement from mechanically activated silico-manganese (SiMn) slag

Silico-manganese (SiMn) slag has been used to develop alkali activated cement binder. The reactivity of SiMn slag was altered by mechanical activation using eccentric vibratory and attrition mill. The reaction kinetics during alkali activation of SiMn slag and structural reorganization were studied using isothermal conduction calorimetry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The particle size after milling was smaller in attrition milled samples but reaction started earlier in vibratory milled samples due to more reactivity. This observation was further supported by compressive strength which was highest in samples prepared from vibratory milled slag. The main reaction product was C–S–H (C = CaO, S = SiO₂, H = H₂O) of low crystallinity of different types with varying Si/Al and Ca/Si ratio. An attempt has been made to relate the microstructure with mechanical properties. The results obtained in this study establish technical suitability of SiMn slag as raw material for alkali activated cement.     

Effects of mineral admixtures on fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting concretes: binary,ternary and quaternary systems

The paper presented herein investigates the effects of using supplementary cementitious materials in binary, ternary, and quaternary blends on the fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting concretes (SCCs). A total of 22 concrete mixtures were designed having a constant water/binder ratio of 0.32 and total binder content of 550 kg/m³. The control mixture contained only portland cement (PC) as the binder while the remaining mixtures incorporated binary, ternary, and quaternary cementitious blends of PC, fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and silica fume (SF). After mixing, the fresh properties of the concretes were tested for slump flow time, L-box height ratio, V-funnel flow time, setting time, and viscosity. Moreover, compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and electrical resistivity of the hardened concretes were measured. Test results have revealed that incorporating the mineral admixtures improved the fresh properties and rheology of the concrete mixtures. The compressive strength and electrical resistivity of the concretes with SF and GGBFS were much higher than those of the control concrete.     

Development of an injectable grout for concrete repair and strengthening

This paper deals with the coupled effect of temperature and silica fume addition on rheological, mechanical behaviour and porosity of grouts based on CEMI 42.5R, proportioned with a polycarboxylate-based high range water reducer. Preliminary tests were conducted to focus on the grout best able to fill a fibrous network since the goal of this study was to develop an optimized grout able to be injected in a mat of steel fibers for concrete strengthening.The grout composition was developed based on criteria for fresh state and hardened state properties. For a CEMI 42.5R based grout different high range water reducer dosages (0%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.7%) and silica fume (SF) dosages (0%, 2%, 4%) were tested (as replacement of cement by mass). Rheological measurements were used to investigate the effect of polycarboxylates (PCEs) and SF dosage on grout properties, particularly its workability loss, as the mix was to be injected in a matrix of steel fibers for concrete jacketing. The workability behaviour was characterized by the rheological parameters yield stress and plastic viscosity (for different grout temperatures and resting times), as well as the procedures of mini slump cone and funnel flow time. Then, further development focused only on the best grout compositions. The cement substitution by 2% of SF exhibited the best overall behaviour and was considered as the most promising compared to the others compositions tested. Concerning the fresh state analysis, a significant workability loss was detected if grout temperature increased above 35 °C. Below this temperature the grout presented a self-levelling behaviour and a life time equal to 45 min. In the hardened state, silica fumes increased not only the grout’s porosity but also the grout’s compressive strength at later ages, since the pozzolanic contribution to the compressive strength does not occur until 28 d and beyond.