Oxidative stress and apoptosis induced by iron oxide nanoparticles in cultured human umbilical endothelial cells

Recent epidemiologic researches indicate that exposure to ultrafine particles (nanoparticles) is an independent risk factor for several cardiovascular diseases. The induction of endothelial injuries is hypothesized to be an attractive mechanism involved in these cardiovascular diseases. To investigate this hypothesis, the widely used iron nanomaterials, ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and ferriferrous oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles were incubated with human umbilical endothelial cells (ECV304 cells) at different concentrations of 2, 20, 100 microg/mL. The cell viability, the rate of apoptosis, the apoptotic nuclear morphology and the mitochondria membrane potential were measured to estimate the cell necrosis and apoptosis caused by the nanoparticle exposure. The stimulation of superoxide anion (O2*-) and nitric oxide (NO) were examined to evaluate the stress responses of endothelial cells. Our results indicated that both the Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 nanoparticles could generate oxidative stress as well as the significant increase of nitric oxide in ECV304 cells. The loss of mitochondria membrane potential and the apoptotic chromatin condensation in the nucleus were observed as the early signs of apoptosis. It is inferred the stress response might be an important mechanism involving in endothelial cells apoptosis and death, and these injuries in endothelial cells might play a key role in downstream cardiovascular diseases such as atheroscelerosis, hypertension and myocardial infarction (MI).     

Synthesis and growth mechanism of iron oxide nanowhiskers

Iron oxide nanowhiskers with dimensions of approximately 2 × 20 nm were successfully synthesized by selectively heating an iron oleate complex. Such nanostructures resulted from the difference in the ligand coordination microenvironments of the Fe(III) oleate complex, according to our electronic structure calculations and thermogravimetric analysis. A ligand-directed growth mechanism was subsequently proposed to rationalize the growth process. The formation of the nanowhiskers provides a unique example of shape-controlled nanostructures, offering additional insights into nanoparticle synthesis.     

Multifunctional iron and iron oxide nanoparticles in silica

Iron and iron oxide nanoparticles in silica layers deposited by sol–gel techniques on Si wafers were formed and studied. It was shown that multifunctional nanoparticles of different iron oxides possessing various physical properties can be fabricated by means of post-growth annealing of (SiO₂:Fe)/SiO₂/Si samples in various atmospheres. The hematite, maghemite, and iron nanoparticles were found to be dominant upon annealing the samples in air, argon, and hydrogen atmosphere, respectively. The physical properties of produced hybrid structures were studied by Raman and FT-IR spectroscopy, spectroscopic ellipsometry, AFM, and magnetic measurements. The sol–gel technique with subsequent annealing procedure is demonstrated to be an effective method for the formation of multifunctional hybrid structures composed of iron or iron oxide nanoparticles in silica matrix.     

Differential internalization of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles in different types of cells

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) have attracted great attention for nanomedical applications, but the mechanisms underlying the transmembrane transport of SPION in variant cells has not been fully defined. The present study investigated the internalization of SPION in three cell models with different phagocytic capacity using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) analyses. The EDS study aimed to further confirm if the suspected internalized particles were iron-containing SPION. SPION could be taken up quickly by macrophage-like cell line RAW264.7 (with strong phagocytic capacity) and slowly by the 3T3-L1 cells (with weak phagocytic capacity), but not by red blood cells (with no phagocytic capacity). The internalized SPION were mainly found in the cytoplasmic vesicles, with no localization in the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and nucleus. We conclude that the internalization of SPION in the three types of mammalian cells was mediated by phagocytosis, not by direct membrane penetration.     

Mass imaging of iron oxide nanoparticles inside cells for in vitro cytotoxicity

Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) imaging analysis was performed on murine macrophage cells treated with various concentrations of iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles, which are used as MRI contrast agents. First, murine macrophage cells were seeded on a slide glass for 24 hrs and treated with varying concentrations of Fe3O4 nanoparticles for 24 hrs. To expose a cross section of each cell and obtain a distribution of the nanoparticles inside the cells, the cells were sputtered using Bi ions after which the cross section of each cell was scanned and imaged using the focused cluster ion beam with a spatial resolution of 300 nm. Fe3O4 nanoparticles were found mainly in the cytoplasm region of the cells, not in the nucleus region of cells, suggesting that the uptake of the Fe3O4 nanoparticles were into the cytoplasm of cell, not into the nucleus of cell. Based on these observations, our protocol using mass imaging analysis would be a useful addition to the study of in vitro nanoparticle cytotoxicity.     

Seed-mediated synthesis of iron oxide and gold/iron oxide nanoparticles

In this study, we prepared magnetic iron oxide and gold/iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) and characterized their morphologies and properties by XRD, TEM, EDX, VSM and UV-vis measurements. The magnetite iron oxide NPs of 10 nm were synthesized by coprecipitation of Fe2+ and Fe+3 in the solution of NH4OH and then they were used as seed particles for the subsequent growth to prepare the magnetite NPs of different particle sizes and also to prepare gold/iron oxide composite NPs. All those magnetite NPs are superparamagnetic and the gold/iron oxide composite NPs combine the optical and magnetic properties, which are contributed by gold and iron oxide components, respectively.     

In vitro cytotoxicity of transparent yellow iron oxide nanoparticles on human glioma cells

With rapid development of nanotechnology, concerns about the possible adverse health effects on human beings by using nanomaterials have been raised. Transparent yellow iron oxide (alpha-FeOOH) nanoparticles have been widely used in paints, plastic, rubber, building materials, papermaking, food products and pharmaceutical industry, thus the potential health implications by the exposure should be considered. The purpose of this study is to assess the cytotoxicity of transparent yellow iron oxide nanoparticles on U251 human glioma cells. The alpha-FeOOH nanoparticles are in clubbed shapes with 9 nm in diameter and 43 nm long. The specific surface area is 115.3 m2/g. After physicochemical characterization of the nanoparticles, U251 cells were exposed to a-FeOOH at the doses of 0, 3.75, 15, 60 and 120 microg/mL. The results showed that the alpha-FeOOH nanoparticles reduced the cell viability and induced necrosis and apoptosis in U251 cells. In addition, nanoparticle exposure significantly increased the levels of superoxide anion and nitric oxide in a dose-dependent fashion in the cells. Our results suggest that exposure to alpha-FeOOH nanoparticles induce significant free radical formation and cytotoxic effects. The large surface area that induced high surface reactivity may play an important role in the cytotoxic effect of alpha-FeOOH nanoparticles.     

Reduction mechanism of uniform iron oxide nanoparticles to metal used as recording media

Uniform and stable α-Fe nanoparticles of around 40 nm in width and axial ratios from 5 to 7 have been obtained from hematite (α-Fe₂O₃) without any additive. The precursor was synthesized by forced hydrolysis of a Fe(ClO₄)₃ solution in the presence of urea and different amounts of NaH₂PO₄. These particles have been reduced to metal α-Fe by heating under a hydrogen flow and the best conditions of temperature, hydrogen flow and time to preserve the morphology have been established. There is a minimum temperature (400 °C) and a minimum hydrogen flow (20 l/h) to reduce the hematite particles to metal in a reasonable time (4 h), preserving the size and the shape of the particles. The main change in the material is related to the crystallite size of the metal particles, which increases as the reduction proceeds. A detailed analysis of the magnetic properties of these particles during the reduction process and the influence of the particle axial ratio has been carried out.     

Annealing effects on 5 nm iron oxide nanoparticles

Morphological, structural and magnetic properties of 4.8 nm iron oxide nanoparticles have been investigated after annealing under inert atmosphere at different temperatures. The as-prepared iron oxide nanoparticles have been synthesized by chemical route from high temperature reaction of Fe(acac)3 solution in presence of oleic acid and oleylamine surfactant. Annealing the particles at low temperatures (Tann = 573 K) produces an increment of the mean size from 4.8 nm to 6.0 nm, preserving the same morphology. The coercive field of the annealed sample has a small increasing with respect to the as-prepared sample in agreement with the mean particle volume change. Annealing at higher temperature (Tann = 823 K) leads to a bimodal size distribution of the iron oxide nanoparticles with 6.0 nm and 17 nm mean sizes respectively, where the bigger particles dominate the observed magnetic properties.     

Characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles by Mössbauer spectroscopy

Small particles of iron oxides, nominally 7 nm and 13 nm in diameter, have been studied by ⁵⁷Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy in the temperature range 4 K to room temperature. The Mössbauer spectra show, at high temperature, relaxational behaviour in agreement with the superparamagnetism expected. At low temperature the spin motion becomes slower and, finally, blocked. There are also indications that the material is non-stoichiometric.     

Biological crystallization of self-aligned iron oxide nanoparticles

Crystal growth and magnetic behavior of iron oxide nanoparticles assembled with biomolecules have been investigated. The nanoparticles assembled with trypsin molecules exhibit superparamagnetism at room temperature with blocking temperature ($sim$80 K) significantly lower than those without trypsin ($sim$140 K). This is attributed to reduced magnetostatic couplings between particles due to increased distance between particles separated by trypsin molecules. Moreover, the synthesized nanoparticle–biomolecule assemblies consist of a unique one-dimensional self-assembled arrays of nanoparticles found by structural analysis using transmission electron microscopy. The moirÉ fringes observed from the particle arrays indicate that the particles are aligned with slight misorientation of their crystallographic axes. Such an unusual formation of nanoparticle arrays may be relevant to specific ligand sites in trypsin molecules and the magnetostatic interparticle couplings.     

Abrasive properties of aluminum iron oxide nanoparticles

Aluminum iron oxide nanoparticles have been prepared by heat-treating ammonium hydroxycarbonate complexes with the general formula NH₄Al₂Fe(OH)₅(CO₃) · nH₂O and have been characterized by X-ray diffraction, IR spectroscopy, differential thermal analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and particle size analysis. The mixed oxide α-Al_{2 − x} Fe _x O₃ with x = 0.30−0.37 prepared from hydroxy complexes ensures surface roughness values R _a = 0.005−0.02 μm in polishing of the ShKh15 quenched steel with an austenite/martensite structure and offers high abrasion rate owing to its enhanced tribochemical activity and the presence of particles in the size range 1–10 nm.     

Hydrothermal synthesis of surface-modified iron oxide nanoparticles

We synthesized surface-modified iron oxide nanoparticles in aqueous phase by heating an aqueous solution of iron sulfate (FeSO₄) at 473 K with a small amount of either n-decanoic acid (C₉H₁₉COOH) or n-decylamine (C₁₀H₂₁NH₂), which is not miscible with water at room temperature. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the addition of n-decanoic acid or decylamine changed the shape of the obtained nanoparticles. X-ray diffraction spectra revealed that the synthesized nanoparticles were in α-Fe₂O₃ or Fe₃O₄ phase while Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetry indicated the existence of an organic layer on the surface of the nanoparticles. In the synthetic condition, decreased dielectric constant of water at higher temperature increased the solubility of n-decanoic acid or n-decylamine in water to promote the reaction between the surface of iron oxide nanoparticles and the organic reagents. After the synthesis, the used organic modifiers separated from the aqueous phase at room temperature, which may help the environmentally benign synthesis of surface-modified metal oxide nanoparticles.     

Ultrasonic-assisted preparation of monodisperse iron oxide nanoparticles

Monodisperse iron oxide nanoparticles with 5–20 nm can be synthesized by an inexpensive and simple ultrasonic-assisted method at low temperature. This is based on the decomposition of iron pentacarbonyl in cis–trans decalin. The high energy emitted by ultrasonic irradiation at a short time can promote the crystallization process simultaneously. At low temperature, these crystalline nucleuses can grow to monodisperse nanoparticles. Effects of ultrasonic treatment, the concentration of surfactant and the refluxing time on the size and size distribution of iron oxide nanoparticles were investigated. The morphology and crystal structure of iron oxide nanoparticles obtained at different conditions were characterized by high-resolution transmission electron microscope, X-ray diffraction and selected area electron diffraction.     

Preparation of uncoated iron oxide nanoparticles by thermal decarboxylation of iron hydroxide cetylsulfonyl acetate in solution

A novel method for preparing uncoated iron oxide nanoparticles by thermal decarboxylation of iron hydroxide cetylsulfonyl acetate in solution followed by heating under the protection of nitrogen was presented. The thermal decarboxylation of the precursor and the formation of iron oxide were monitored by FTIR and XRD, the vibrations of alkyl and sulfonyl groups vanished after refluxing in tetraline and uncoated maghemite was obtained after heating treatment at 400 °C. The sizes and morphologies of the obtained samples were studied by TEM. The particles were about 3 nm after refluxing and 8 nm after calcining at 400 °C but agglomerated due to the absence of capping ligands.     

Uptake of dimercaptosuccinate-coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles by cultured brain astrocytes

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe-NP) are currently considered for various diagnostic and therapeutic applications in the brain. However, little is known on the accumulation and biocompatibility of such particles in brain cells. We have synthesized and characterized dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) coated Fe-NP and have investigated their uptake by cultured brain astrocytes. DMSA-coated Fe-NP that were dispersed in physiological medium had an average hydrodynamic diameter of about 60 nm. Incubation of cultured astrocytes with these Fe-NP caused a time- and concentration-dependent accumulation of cellular iron, but did not lead within 6 h to any cell toxicity. After 4 h of incubation with 100-4000 μM iron supplied as Fe-NP, the cellular iron content reached levels between 200 and 2000 nmol mg?1 protein. The cellular iron content after exposure of astrocytes to Fe-NP at 4?°C was drastically lowered compared to cells that had been incubated at 37?°C. Electron microscopy revealed the presence of Fe-NP-containing vesicles in cells that were incubated with Fe-NP at 37?°C, but not in cells exposed to the nanoparticles at 4?°C. These data demonstrate that cultured astrocytes efficiently take up DMSA-coated Fe-NP in a process that appears to be saturable and strongly depends on the incubation temperature.     

Preparation and characterization of iron nanoparticles protected by an oxide film

Iron nanopowders ranging in particle size from 20 to 100 nm have been synthesized by reducing a 1-mm-thick iron(III) hydroxide layer in flowing hydrogen at 400°C and then passivated for 6–60 min in flowing argon containing 3% air. Our results demonstrate that the passivated iron nanopowders do not oxidize in air for six months. The iron nanoparticles have been characterized by X-ray diffraction (crystallite size evaluation), Auger electron spectroscopy, and polymolecular adsorption. The passivated iron nanoparticles have been shown to consist of a metallic core and oxide shell 2–4 nm in thickness.     

Preparation of iron oxide nanoparticles by microwave synthesis and their characterization

In this study production of fine particle Fe2O3 via microwave processing of Fe(NO3)3.nH2O followed by low temperature annealing was reported. XRD was used to characterize the structural properties of nanoparticles. Approximate particle sizes were between 3-13 nm according to Scherrer's equation. Single point BET measurement results also show that samples have large surface area and they are nanometer sized particles. TEM study was conducted to examine the structure of the nanoparticles. TEM figure is in good agreement with the results obtained from Scherrer's equation using XRD spectra. In order to characterize the magnetic properties of the nanoparticles VSM (Vibrating Sample Magnetometer) was used. From these results it can be concluded that the sample containing only maghemite phase exhibits superparamagnetic behaviour, on the other hand sample containing both hematite and maghemite phases shows paramagnetic behaviour above 300 K, superparamagnetic behavior at lower temperatures.     

Functionalisation of glass with iron oxide nanoparticles produced by laser pyrolysis

In the present work, a new process for depositing nanoparticle layers onto glass has been developed by using one of the most interesting nanoparticle generation technologies at the moment, which is based on the pyrolysis induced by laser of vapours combined with CVD of the particles onto glass. Nanoparticles prepared by this method were deposited into a hot silica substrate obtaining new nanocomposites with unique properties. The coated glasses present new specific functionalities such as colour, and interesting magnetic and optical properties. Control of the thickness and the iron oxide phase, either magnetic or not, has been achieved by adjusting the experimental conditions. Thus, thickness is controlled by the glass and the precursor temperature, while the iron phase is controlled by the precursor temperature and the nature and the flow of the carrier gas. This process is inexpensive, adaptable to current glass production technologies and takes place at atmospheric pressure.