Effect of freezing temperature, thawing and cooking rate on water distribution in two pork qualities

The effects of freezing temperature (-20 versus -80°C) in combination with long-term freezer storage (-20°C) on water mobility and distribution in pork of two qualities (normal and high ultimate pH) were explored using low-field NMR T(2) relaxometry. A marked effect of freezing temperature on the characteristics of intra- and extramyofibrillar water (T(2) relaxation times) in the thawed pork was demonstrated, implying that the freezing temperature in combination with prolonged freezer storage affects the distribution and chemical-physical state of water in the thawed meat. Determination of technological properties (thawing and cooking loss) revealed that the observed T(2) variations related to water distribution and water properties, which were found to be consistent with the degree of structural damage assessed by light microscopy, also were reflected in the technological quality of the meat. Low freezing temperature in combination with prolonged freezer storage was associated with increased thawing and cooking loss. In addition, pH in the fresh meat had a pronounced effect on the distribution of myofibrillar water, as a more homogenous pore size distribution was evident in meat with high pH compared with normal pH. A clear effect of cooking rate on the T(2) relaxation characteristics in the cooked pork was also demonstrated, probably reflecting a cooking rate-induced effect on the myofibrillar structures. The effect of cooking rate on water distribution resulted in a significantly lower cooking loss upon a slow cooking rate (0.5°C/min from 25 to 65°C and 0.3°C/min from 65 to 80°C) compared with a fast cooking rate (1°C/min).     

低场核磁共振分析冰温牛肉中不同状态水分变化

利用低场核磁共振技术研究冰温贮藏条件下无包装与真空包装牛肉在贮藏过程中水分弛豫参数的变化规律.通过驰豫测定,结果显示新鲜牛肉中有3种不同活动状态的水分,即结合水、不易流动水和自由水,其对应的横向弛豫时间分别是T21、T22、T23.对弛豫参数与常见肉品质指标进行皮尔逊相关系数分析,揭示了两者间的相关性.结果表明:无包装牛肉自由水弛豫参数与其品质指标均有较强的相关性,而真空包装牛肉的弛豫参数与其品质指标的相关性均不强.对冰温贮藏牛肉的品质影响最大的水分是自由水,自由水的弛豫参数能够很好的用于无包装牛肉常规品质指标的研究.     

Prediction of technological quality (cooking loss and Napole Yield) of pork based on fresh meat characteristics

In order to investigate if cooking loss and Napole Yield can be predicted from various fresh meat characteristics, pH (1, 15, 30, 60, 120 min and 24 h post mortem), temperature (1, 15, 30, 60, 120 min and 24 h post mortem), water-holding capacity (Honikel's drip loss method and centrifugation loss), and NMR T2 relaxation 24 h post mortem were measured in fresh porcine M. longissimus dorsi from 102 Hampshire crossbreeds of known RN(-) genotype. Subsequently, cooking loss and Napole Yield were determined on cooked and cured, cooked samples, respectively, and partial least squares regression (PLS) was carried out to investigate possible intercorrelations between the physico-chemical measurements performed on the fresh meat and cooking loss/Napole Yield. Significant correlations were found between NMR T2 relaxation measured in fresh pork 24 h post mortem and the cooking loss (R=0.64) and Napole Yield (R=0.58), whereas no correlations were found between traditionally applied methods such as pH measurements, Honikel's method and centrifugation, and the cooking loss/Napole Yield. Consequently, it is concluded that NMR T2 relaxation characteristics of fresh pork in contrast to traditional fresh meat characteristics contain information about factors of importance for cooking loss/Napole Yield from cooked uncured/cured pork. The result implies that low-field (LF) NMR data from fresh meat reflects information about water compartmentalisation and mobility that is partly decisive for subsequent heat-induced changes of importance for the distribution of water within the cooked meat. In addition, the obtained results show that LF NMR data measured on fresh meat also seems to contain information about the inherent water of importance for the technological characteristics of the meat even when the meat is cured before cooking.     

Curing-induced water mobility and distribution within intra- and extra-myofibrillar spaces of three pork qualities

This study introduces the use of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometry in the elucidation of the curing‐induced water mobility and distribution within pork. Fresh meat samples of three different meat qualities [normal; pale, soft and exudative (PSE); dark, firm and dry (DFD)] were cured by using different curing conditions (0.9–9% NaCl and 6% NaCl + 10 mm Na₄P₂O₇). Distributed NMR T₂ relaxation data revealed the presence of three distinct water populations (T_2b, T₂₁, T₂₂), with the T₂₁ population being most influenced by the curing conditions, which was reflected by strong correlations between the salt‐induced swelling and the mean relaxation time of the T₂₁ population. Consequently, the T₂₁ population reflects the myofibrillar swelling, and is an excellent indicator of myofibrillar geometry upon curing. Both the NMR data and the salt‐induced swelling capacity were highly dependent on fresh meat quality. Independent of brine composition, the DFD meat had a significantly higher swelling capacity than the two other meat qualities. A higher response to NaCl concentration on the swelling capacity was observed for PSE and normal meat than for DFD meat, which suggests interactions between the pH of the meat and NaCl‐induced swelling.     

The influence of exhaustion and electrical stimulation on the meat quality of young bulls: Part 2-Physical and sensory properties

The physical and sensory properties of meat from sixteen exhausted and sixteen gently treated young bulls were investigated. The influence of electrical stimulation was also studied. The meat was divided into three groups-meat with ultimate pH ≤ 5·80 (normal meat), 5·81-6·19 (medium meat) and ≥6·20 (DFD meat), respectively. DFD meat showed typical DFD properties and had a higher initial tenderness but a smaller increase in tenderness than normal meat during storage. The medium meat was tough and behaved in some ways as DFD meat and in others like normal meat. Lower correlation between shear force measurement and sensory evaluated tenderness was obtained for DFD than for normal meat. The cooking loss of DFD meat was about 10% lower than that of normal and medium meat. No significant correlation could be found between storage loss, cooking loss, frying loss and juiciness. The electrically stimulated meat was-especially for normal meat-more tender and juicy than unstimulated meat. No obvious influence due to electrical stimulation was noticed on colour, cooking loss, frying loss or storage loss. Electrical stimulation of stressed, but not exhausted, animals may produce meat with PSE properties.     

Differences in quality characteristics of normal, PSE and DFD pork

Differences in water-holding capacity, colour and tenderness/toughness were studied in 21 pork loins belonging to three quality categories, i.e. dark firm dry (DFD), normal and pale soft exudative (PSE). The division into the three groups was based upon the ultimate pH-values of the loins (< pH 5·5, pH 5·5-6·0, pH > 6·4). The PSE loins were characterized by a poor waterholding capacity, higher cooking loss and paler colour in contrast to the DFD category. The normal loins took an intermediate position. Neither sarcomere length, determined on fresh muscle tissue, nor Armour tenderometer values showed significant differences between the various quality categories. This was in contrast to the Warner-Bratzler (W-B) shear force values, determined on cooked loins, which had the lowest values in the DFD category. A strong relationship between the W-B values and the cooking losses was found. It was concluded that neither sarcomere length nor Armour tenderometer measurements were able to predict the shear force values of cooked pork loins.     

Aging-induced changes in microstructure and water distribution in fresh and cooked pork in relation to water-holding capacity and cooking loss - A combined confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation study

Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) relaxometry were combined to characterize microstructural changes and water distribution in fresh and cooked pork during an aging period of 14 days. At day 1 (24 h postmortem) a few muscle fibres, which appear swollen, were observed in both fresh and cooked meat. An identical microstructure was still apparent after 14 days, however, the number of muscle fibres showing distinguished characteristics was found to increase throughout the aging period. Hence, it was apparent that during aging the individual fibres swell and disintegrate at different rates. Development in water-holding capacity (WHC) was followed during the aging period using gravimetric methods, and an increase in the WHC in the fresh meat was observed, which resembled the amount of extramyofibrillar water measured by NMR relaxometry (T₂₂ population). This was consistent with the CLSM images, as a substantial increase in the number of myofibrils that appeared swollen, capable of holding more water, was observed during aging. In the cooked meat the width of the T_21c population, reflecting the myofibrillar water in the cooked meat, was seen to decrease during the entire storage period, which corresponds to the development of a more homogeneous structure. In the CLSM data a continuous degradation during the storage period was observed, which could resemble a shift to a more homogeneous structure. Comparison of CLSM of transverse sections of fresh and cooked pork revealed a pronounced shrinkage of muscle fibres upon cooking. This resulted in large gaps between the cooked muscle fibres, which also was visible as shrinkage at the level of the individual myofibrils. This pattern was also reflected in the NMR relaxation data. The cooking-induced shrinkage of the myofibrils occurred concomitantly with a decrease in the amount of intermyofibrillar water within the individual fibre and an increase in the larger extramyofibrillar spaces between fibres, i.e. water is expelled from the myofibrillar matrix upon cooking. Accordingly, the present study demonstrated that the use of CLSM together with NMR relaxometry can provide further information on the relationship between structural characteristics of meat and resultant water distribution.     

低场核磁结合理化指标分析低温贮藏真空包装牦牛肉的品质

本文以牦牛肉为研究对象,采用低场核磁共振(Low Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance,LF-NMR)技术研究牦牛肉经真空包装后于4 ℃贮藏过程中水分的变化,并对其与蛋白质溶解度、挥发性盐基氮、TBARS、菌落总数及蒸煮损失的相关性进行综合分析。结果表明,随着贮藏时间的延长,TVB-N、蛋白质溶解度、TBARS的值随着时间的延长不断增加,菌落总数在第15 d时已达7.15lg cfu/g;LF-NMR测得牦牛肉的横向弛豫时间 T₂谱中出现 4个峰,在18 d的贮藏过程中T₂₁、T₂₂弛豫时间后移,结合水和自由水不断减小,且与TVB-N、蛋白质溶解度、TBARS、菌落总数之间显著或极显著相关(p<0.05或p<0.01)。通过LF-NMR技术可对真空包装的低温贮藏牦牛肉进行无损、科学的品质监测,为肉品品质变化的机理研究及科学合理贮藏牦牛肉提供实验依据。     

冻结方式对凡纳滨对虾贮藏中组织冰晶及品质的影响

新鲜凡纳滨对虾采用液氮、平板及冰柜冻结结合-20 ℃贮藏,研究不同贮藏时间内其组织冰晶形态与品质变化,以评价出最优的冻结方式。结果显示,随着贮藏时间的延长,平板及冰箱冻结的盐溶性蛋白含量、持水性、感官评分显著降低(p<0.05);而液氮冻结形成的冰晶直径比平板速冻小1/3,比冰箱小1/2;冻结后贮藏180 d其挥发性盐基氮(TVB-N值)≤25 mg/100 g,硫代巴比妥酸值(TBA)仅为0.72 mg/100 g,有效抑制了虾肉肌原纤维蛋白变性及脂肪氧化,能较好维持肌肉组织形态和品质,从而使虾肉的货架期延长至180 d以上。     

基于低场核磁共振研究不同解冻方式对冻猪肉食用品质的影响

本研究旨在从低场核磁共振（low field-nuclear magnetic resonance,LF-NMR）T2弛豫的角度探究不同解冻方式对冻猪肉食用品质的影响。以冷鲜肉（半腱肌,宰后27 h）作对照,测定冷藏解冻、微波-1解冻和微波-2解冻3 种解冻方式下冷冻猪肉的品质特性（解冻损失、蒸煮损失、持水能力（water holding capacity,WHC）、pH值、色泽、水溶性和盐溶性蛋白含量）,T2弛豫时间的水分分布情况及感官品质特性的变化。结果表明：微波-2解冻耗时最短,为5 min;微波解冻与冷藏解冻相比,具有更低的解冻损失率（P＜0.01）,其中微波-2的解冻损失率最低（5.31%）;并且相比于鲜肉,微波-2具有更高的WHC（30.99%）和更低的剪切力（19.49 N）;3 种解冻方式对肉样pH值无显著影响（P＞0.05）;微波解冻对肉样L*值、a*值、b*值、水溶性蛋白含量和盐溶性蛋白含量的影响均优于冷藏解冻,且与冷鲜肉更加接近;NMR T2弛豫的水分分布情况显示,冷藏解冻使冻猪肉中的不易流动水向自由水进行迁移,微波-1解冻则使冻猪肉中的自由水向不易流动水迁移,而微波-2解冻更倾向于使不易流动水向结合水迁移,这一定程度上解释了以上品质特性指标的差异性;感官评价结果显示微波-2解冻肉样各项评估指标评分与鲜肉更接近。由此可见,微波-2解冻能够更好地保持猪肉的食用品质。     

Lipid Oxidation, Color, Volatiles, and Sensory Characteristics of Aerobically Packaged and Irradiated Pork with Different Ultimate pH

ABSTRACT: Irradiation and storage increased lipid oxidation of normal and pale-soft-exudative (PSE) muscles, whereas dark-firm-dry (DFD) muscle was very stable and resistant to oxidative changes. Irradiation increased redness regardless of pork-quality type, and the increases were proportional to irradiation dose. Irradiation increased the production of sulfur-containing volatiles, but not lipid oxidation products. The total volatiles produced in normal and PSE pork were higher than the DFD pork. Some volatiles produced in meat by irradiation evaporated during storage under aerobic packaging conditions. Nonirradiated normal and DFD pork had higher odor preference scores than the nonirradiated PSE, but irradiation reduced the preference scores of all 3 pork-quality types.     

Effect of ionizing radiation on quality characteristics of vacuum-packaged normal,pale–soft–exudative,and dark–firm–dry pork

Normal, pale–soft–exudative (PSE), and dark–firm–dry (DFD) pork Longissimus dorsi muscles were vacuum-packaged, irradiated at 0, 2.5 or 4.5 kGy, and stored at 4 °C for 10 days. The pH, color and lipid oxidation of pork were determined at 0, 5 and 10 days of storage. Volatile production from pork loins was determined at Day 0 and Day 10, and sensory characteristics at Day 7 of storage. Irradiation increased the redness of vacuum-packaged normal, PSE and DFD pork. However, the 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values of three types of pork were not influenced by irradiation and storage time. Irradiation increased the production of sulfur (S)-containing volatile compounds, such as mercaptomethane, dimethyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, methyl thioacetate, and dimethyl disulfide, as well as total volatiles in all three types of pork. Normal pork produced higher levels of total and S-containing volatile compounds than the PSE and DFD pork did. The volatiles produced by irradiation were retained in the vacuum packaging bag during storage. Although the odor preference for the three meat types of pork was not different, the panelists could distinguish irradiated meat from the non-irradiated. Industrial relevance: Several US meat companies have already started test-marketing irradiated meat products. Irradiation and the subsequent storage of pork improved the color of PSE and DFD pork, and showed generally similar effects on the production of volatiles, except that there appeared to be a lower level of S-volatiles in the PSE than in the other two samples. This indicated that irradiation can increase the utilization of low-quality pork (PSE and DFD). DFD pork, in particular, which has shorter shelf-life than the others, could benefit the most from irradiation because the shelf-life of DFD meat can be extended significantly by both the methods of vacuum packaging and irradiation.     

Ante-mortem detection of PSE and DFD by infrared thermography of pigs before stunning

Using water-holding capacity and colour measurements (L and b values) as objective quality parameters, we have observed an increasing incidence of meat quality defects with the increasing skin surface temperature of pigs by infrared thermography prior to stunning. Below 32·2°C, 50% of the 32 pigs measured had normal meat while the other half showed meat quality defects. Above 32·2°C, however, 71% of the 49 pigs showed meat quality problems classified as moderate PSE (6%), PSE (30%), moderate DFD (22%) and DFD (37%). At this temperature level, meat quality of the remaining pigs was normal and decreased to 29%. Although infrared thermography of live animals cannot predict whether the meat will be PSE or DFD, it seems to be a practical and rapid method to detect pigs who will yield a significant proportion of meat quality defects. An early post-mortem identification of meat quality could supply the missing information.     

Effect of freezing method and frozen storage duration on lamb sensory quality

This study assessed the effect of three freezing methods with three frozen storage durations (1, 3, and 6 months) on the sensory quality of lamb. Methods were: air blast freezer, freezing tunnel + air blast freezer, and nitrogen chamber + air blast freezer. Meat was frozen after 48 h of ageing (0-4 °C). Fresh meat (72 h ageing at 2-4 °C) was used as control. Sensory analyses (trained panel and consumer tests) were performed on loin chops (Longissimus lumborum) after 24 h of thawing. Results from the trained panel test showed that freezing (method and/or storage duration) had no significant effect. Consumers found that freezing affected sensory quality. Cluster analysis for overall acceptability divided the population into four classes with different preference patterns, and none of them showed a significant preference for fresh meat. The small differences between fresh and thawed meat shown in this study should not give consumers concerns about buying frozen meat or consuming thawed meat.     

FREEZING OF RAW BEEF: INFLUENCE OF AGING, FREEZING RATE AND COOKING METHOD ON QUALITY AND YIELD

The combined effects of aging, freezing rate, frozen storage and cooking method on beef quality and yield were studied in a multifactorial experiment, using 1.5 cm slices of LD muscles from young steers. Aging for 2 wk resulted in significantly more tender, but slightly less juicy frozen meat than aging for 4 days. Prolonged frozen storage gave tougher meat and a larger tenderness difference between aging times. Freezing rates of 13, 2.0 and 0.04 cm/h differed but little in their effect on sensory quality, but slightly lower yield and redness value were noted for the lowest rate. Pan frying directly from the frozen state resulted in slightly higher juiciness and cooking yield, with larger differences in yield between freezing rates, than cooking after previous thawing. Significant interactions were noted for cooking method × freezing rate and for aging time × frozen storage time     

Effect of freezing method and frozen storage duration on instrumental quality of lamb throughout display

This study evaluated the effect of freezing method (FM) (air blast freezer, freezing tunnel, or nitrogen chamber) and frozen storage duration (FSD) (1, 3, or 6 months) on the instrumental measurements of quality of thawed lamb, aged for a total of 72 h, throughout a 10-d display period, compared to the quality of fresh meat. pH, colour, lipid oxidation, thawing, and cooking losses in Longissimus thoracis and lumborum muscle, were determined following standard methods. FM affected yellowness, FSD redness and thawing losses, and both affected oxidation (increased as freezing rate decreased and/or as storage duration increased). When compared with fresh meat, the main differences appeared on oxidation (where a significant interaction between treatment (3FM × 3FSD + fresh meat) with display duration was detected), and on total losses (thaw + cook losses). Oxidation was lower in fresh meat, but values were not significantly different from those stored frozen for 1 month. Fresh meat had smaller total losses than did thawed meat, but losses were not significantly different from meat frozen in the freezing tunnel and stored frozen for 1 month. Display duration had a greater effect on instrumental quality parameters than did FM or FSD. pH, b*, and oxidation increased, and L* and a* decreased with an increase in the number of days on display. In conclusion, neither freezing method nor frozen storage up to 6 months influenced extensively the properties of lamb when instrumental measurements of quality were measured in meat that had been displayed for 1 d after thawing. The small deterioration shown in this study should not give consumers concerns about frozen meat.     

大豆分离蛋白添加方式对猪肉凝胶特性的影响

大豆分离蛋白是肉制品加工中常用的植物蛋白,能够改善肉制品品质,但添加方式影响肉制品质量。本文研究添加大豆分离蛋白和11S球蛋白变性的大豆分离蛋白乳化猪背膘对猪肉肉糜蒸煮得率、乳化稳定性及猪肉凝胶色差和质构的影响,并应用低场核磁共振技术,研究不同处理猪肉凝胶中水分分布状态和水分迁移特性的异同。与添加大豆分离蛋白相比,添加大豆分离蛋白乳化猪背膘显著提高(P0.05)猪肉肉糜的蒸煮得率和乳化稳定性,提高凝胶的L*-值和b*-值,硬度、弹性、内聚性和咀嚼性等。低场核磁共振结果表明:添加大豆分离蛋白乳化猪背膘的凝胶,T_(2b)和T_(22)弛豫时间较短,说明水分可移动性降低;T_(21)的峰比例增加,而T_(22)的峰比例降低,说明不易流动的水分含量增加,凝胶有较好的保水性。     

A comparison of methods to estimate water-holding capacity in post-rigor porcine muscle

Water-holding capacity (WHC) of muscle is important because it affects both qualitative and quantitative aspects of meat and meat products. For assessment of WHC under field and laboratory conditions, there are several methods available, but they have not been compared in a single experiment to determine accuracy and repeatibility. The Longissimus dorsi from each of 28 porcine loins representing three distinct levels of WHC (DFD, PSE, normal) was separated into eighteen parts that were randomly assigned to individual methods. The following methods were compared: Grau-Hamm and Braunschweiger-Gerät filter paper press techniques using five approaches of evaluation for each method; transmission per cent; swelling due to added water; centrifugation; 48-h fresh and cooked shrink: imbibition of surface fluids, kapillar volumeter, permittivity; and score or weight of surface fluids accumulating on filter paper. Results indicated that most methods separated the three muscle types. However, the cooking loss tests failed to differentiate between PSE and normal samples, and the transmission, imbibition and pressed fluid methods did not always distinguish between DFD and normal. The tests that appeared to be most reliable included drip loss originating from size-standardized samples, swelling of homogenized samples by added water and absorption of surface fluids on filter paper.     

液氮/液氨速冻鮰鱼片理化性质与组织结构变化

研究分析液氮与液氨速冻对斑点叉尾鮰鱼肉品质的影响。新鲜斑点叉尾鮰分割鱼片后分别进行工业隧道式液氮喷淋速冻（－90 ℃、35 min）、隧道式液氨速冻（－35 ℃、90 min）,速冻样品置于－18 ℃下贮藏90 d。分析比较新鲜鱼肉以及速冻鱼肉在不同冻藏时间解冻损失率、蒸煮损失率、加压失水率、剪切力、pH值、K值、挥发性盐基氮（total volatile basic nitrogen,TVB-N）含量、三甲胺（trimethylamine,TMA）含量与硫代巴比妥酸反应物（thiobarbituric acid reactive substance,TBARs）值,应用荧光显微镜观察鱼肉组织微观结构变化。结果表明：与新鲜鱼肉相比,速冻鱼肉蒸煮损失率增加,加压失水率、剪切力、pH值降低,K值、TVB-N含量、TMA含量、TBARs值均呈上升趋势;随着冻藏时间延长,速冻鱼肉理化性质发生劣变;鱼肉速冻后肌肉细胞面积减小,细胞间隙增大;相比液氨速冻,液氮速冻更有利于保持鱼肉持水性、新鲜度以及组织结构完整性,可有效抑制鱼肉冻藏期间的品质劣变。综上,液氮速冻可以有效保持冷冻鱼肉品质,冻藏30 d内,液氮速冻鱼肉品质特性更接近于新鲜鱼肉。     

QUALITY CHANGES IN AUSTRALIAN RED CLAW CRAYFISH (CHERAX QUADRICARINATUS) SUBJECTED TO MULTIPLE FREEZING‐THAWING CYCLES1

Abstract The influence of repeated freezing‐thawing (F/T, six cycles) treatment on Australian red claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus) muscle quality was investigated. For each F/T cycle, five raw tails were analyzed for lipid oxidation, proteolysis, and thermal stability, and another five tails were cooked to determine cooking yield and tenderness (shear). Lipid oxidation occurred during repeated F/T treatment, as evidenced by a marked TBARS increase, i.e., from 0.070 mg/kg (fresh) to 1.201 mg/kg (cycle 6). While F/T induced small proteolytic and thermal stability changes, it caused a major loss in cooking yield as well as in tenderness of meat. The results showed an overall susceptibility of the main quality traits of red claw muscle to F/T abuses. Thus, to retain good eating qualities, red claw tails should not be subjected to more than three F/T cycles.