Research on reading processes: A historical perspective.

The systematic study of reading dates from the beginnings of experimental psychology in the 1880's. From that time until the publication of E. B. Huey's 1908 test on reading, reading processes were a central focus of experimental psychology. After this period the influence of behaviorism turned experimental psychologists away from the investigation of mental processes, while educational psychologists became preoccupied with testing and measurement. A revival of experimental work began in the 1950's, prompted by both improved funding for education and psychology's renewed interest in cognitive processes. With the current interest in information processing, reading again occupies a central role in psychology. However, it is argued that the research community needs a more convincing justification for continued government support of basic research than one based on potential links to classroom practice. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generative processes in reading comprehension.

In M. C. Wittrock's (1974) generative model of learning with understanding, reading comprehension occurs when readers actively construct meaning for text. Two experiments were conducted with a total of 488 6th graders, in which time to learn was held constant across all treatments. It was predicted and found that the facilitation of generative processes by the insertion of paragraph headings and instructions to generate sentences about story paragraphs during encoding produced the greatest comprehension, followed in turn by instructions to generate sentences, the insertion of paragraph headings, and then by reading the same stories without generative instructions or paragraph headings. The combination of inserted paragraph headings and instructions to generate sentences about paragraphs approximately doubled comprehension and recall in each experiment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Basic processes in reading: Two phonological codes.

In Exp I, 16 undergraduates viewed letter strings that varied in phonological similarity and lexical status. Under a no-interference condition, phonologically distinct lists were better recalled than phonologically confusable ones, and lists with entries in a phonological lexicon (e.g., BRANE) were better recalled than lists without lexical status (e.g., SLINT). When Ss were required to articulate irrelevant sounds, the phonological similarity effect was completely eliminated, but a lexicality effect persisted. In Exp II, another 16 Ss viewed letter strings that varied in syllabic length and lexical status. Pseudohomophones were better recalled than control nonwords under both quiet and articulation conditions, but a syllabic length effect was obtained only in the no-articulation condition. Results show that at least 2 phonological codes underlie performance in a memory-span task. The 1st code permits lexical access from print; suppression does not prevent this code from accessing lexical memory. The 2nd underlies both word length and phonological similarity effects in span; suppression prevents the formation or utilization of this code. Implications for understanding normal reading and developmental reading problems are noted. (French abstract) (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eye movements in reading: Perceptual and cognitive processes.

This article discusses the variability of eye movement behavior. The variability exists between readers, so that the average fixation duration for sonic readers my be around 200 ms and for other readers it may be closer to 300 ms; the average saccade length for some readers may be 6 letter spaces, while for others it may be closer lo 10 letter spaces; and some readers rarely regress while others regress quite frequently. These eye movement characteristics can also be influenced by text difficulty; more difficult text leads to longer fixation durations, shorter saccades, and more regressions. More important than the between reader variability is the within reader variability that exists with each of these measures. The article also discusses research on eye movement during reading. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A new tool for measuring and understanding individual differences in the component processes of reading comprehension.

We propose a new measure of individual differences in reading comprehension ability that is theoretically motivated, is easy to administer, and that has high predictive power. Participants read 3-sentence paragraphs that describe the relations among a set of real and artificial terms, and then they respond to true–false statements that assess their ability to access and integrate long-term memory knowledge with text information, to make text-based inferences, and to recall text. The components of our task predict performance on a test of global reading comprehension and on a range of specific comprehension tests, each of which draws more heavily on one particular component. Our task is better at predicting reading comprehension than is a typical working memory span task and has the potential for advancing researchers' understanding and measurement of a range of linguistic and cognitive tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Serial processing in reading aloud: Reply to Zorzi (2000).

K. Rastle and M. Coltheart (1999; see also M. Coltheart & K. Rastle, 1994) reported data demonstrating that the cost of irregularity in reading aloud low-frequency exception words is modulated by the position of the irregularity in the word. They argued that these data implicated a serial process and falsified all models of reading aloud that operate solely in parallel, a conclusion that M. Zorzi (2000) challenged by successfully simulating the position of irregularity effect with such a model. Zorzi (2000) further claimed that a reanalysis of K. Rastle and A Coltheart's (1999) data demonstrates sensitivity to grapheme-phoneme consistency (which he claimed was confounded across the position of irregularity manipulation) rather than the use of a serial process. Here, the authors argue that M. Zorzi's (2000) reanalyses were inappropriate and reassert that K. Rastle and A Coltheart's (1999) findings are evidence for serial processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Constraints on computational models of basic processes in reading.

There are numerous reports in the visual word recognition literature that the joint effects of various factors are additive on reaction time. A central claim by D. C. Plaut and J. R. Booth (2000, 2006) is that their parallel distributed processing model simulates additive effects of stimulus quality and word frequency in the context of lexical decision. If correct, this success would have important implications for computational accounts of reading processes. However, the results of further simulations with this model undermine this claim given that the joint effects of stimulus quality and word frequency yield a nonmonotonic function (underadditivity, additivity, and overadditivity) depending on the size of the stimulus quality effect, whereas skilled readers yield additivity more broadly. The implications of these results both locally and more globally are discussed, and a number of other issues are noted. Additivity of factor effects constitutes a benchmark that computational accounts should strive to meet. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Basic processes in reading: Computation of abstract letter identities.

A speeded classification experiment examined the hypothesis that an early processing stage in reading involves the computation of abstract letter identities. When 20 undergraduates were asked to base their classification on physical criteria, letter strings that differed in case but shared the same letter identities (e.g., HILE/hile) were classified as "different" less efficiently than strings with a common phonological code but different spelling (e.g., HILE/hyle). Letter strings with a common phonological code but different spelling were classified as efficiently as letter strings without a common phonological code (e.g., HILE/hule). Results of the present experiment, along with other experimental findings and some neuropsychological observations, provide converging evidence for a representation and comparison process that is neither visual nor phonological but is based on abstract letter identities. It is suggested that the computation of abstract letter identities is a precursor to lexical access during reading. Implications for the interpretation of certain developmental reading difficulties are noted. (French abstract) (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Oral language and reading: Reply to Bracken (2005).

Early language competence in preschool relates both directly and indirectly to elementary school reading in both 1st and 3rd grades. Further, comprehensive language skills are more strongly related to early reading than are vocabulary scores alone. In response to a challenge by S. A. Bracken (2005), the current article reaffirms the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network's (see record 2005-02477-013) findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identifying component processes in text comprehension: Comment on Haberlandt and Graesser.

Argues that the results of K. F. Haberlandt and A. C. Graesser's (see record 1986-13625-001) study using a moving-window procedure depict the operation of the component processes only generally and that the moving-window procedure, when applied to individual words, appears to lead readers to adopt strategies that alter text comprehension processes, at least as compared with other procedures such as eye-fixation monitoring. It is contended that although Haberlandt and Graesser's results are consistent with current models of text comprehension, they do not provide a sufficiently fine-grained analysis to discriminate among alternative models. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Basic decoding components in reading: Two dissociable feature extraction processes.

Two views of the feature-extraction process underlying visual word recognition are contrasted. One asserts that features that span individual letters (configurational features) are functional. The other asserts instead that preliminary letter identification alone subserves word recognition. Configurational feature theory predicts that since case alternation eliminates configurational features, words should be more disrupted than nonwords because words have more configurational features than nonwords. The alternative theory predicts that since only preliminary letter identification underlies both word and nonword recognition, any effect of case alternation should be at least as disruptive to nonwords as to words. Two experiments, with 66 undergraduates, varied the utility of configurational features by case alternation and demonstrated that lexical decision provides data consistent with configurational feature theory, but naming latency provides data consistent with preliminary letter identification. Additional findings suggest that configurational features subserve only a familiarity discrimination process that can be recruited for some tasks but is eschewed for others. Tasks that require that a word be uniquely specified rely on preliminary letter identification; case alternation effects in these latter tasks may reflect delays in the mapping of abstract information back on to the original sensory pattern (perceptual integration). (French abstract) (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to the ministries' reactions to the Canadian Psychological Association's position paper on beginning reading instruction.

Reactions to the position paper (M. L. Simner; see record 1994-03519-001) approved by the Canadian Psychological Association on beginning reading instruction were received from 8 ministries (departments) of education. Despite widespread media and public support for the Association's claim that the level of phonics instruction in whole language is insufficient to meet the needs of many beginning readers, the majority of the ministries took issue with this claim. The present article clarifies the Association's stand by drawing attention to the differences between the phonics exercises that research shows should be employed in beginning reading instruction and the phonics exercises that teachers are being encouraged to employ as a result of the ministries' endorsement of whole language. Four additional measures are provided that the Association now asks the ministries to adopt to avoid having more children suffer the consequences of improper beginning reading instruction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of practice on component processes in complex mental addition.

Two experiments examined the effects of task practice on the speed of executing the component processes underlying the mental solution of complex addition problems. Componential analyses of Ss' response times in Exp 1 demonstrated that the component process of carrying was reliably affected by amount of task practice. In contrast, the component processes of encoding single digits and of retrieving correct columnar answers from long-term memory appeared not to have been affected by amount of task practice. Computational feasibility checks indicated that the specificity of the practice effects could be explained by 2 distinct learning mechanisms: strengthening and composition. Results of Exps 2A and 2B favor a composition explanation. It is concluded that the differential practice effects in Exp 1 are probably due to differential composition of component processes underlying complex mental addition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related deficits in component processes of working memory.

Working memory deficits in normal aging have been well documented, and studies suggest that high memory load plus the presence of distraction negatively impacts successful memory performance to a greater degree in older individuals. However, characterization of the component processes that are impaired by these task manipulations is not clear. In this behavioral study, younger and older subjects were tested with a delayed-recognition and recall task in which the encoding and delay period were both manipulated. During the encoding period, the subjects were presented with either a single letter or multiple letters at their predetermined forward letter span, and the delay period was either uninterrupted or interrupted with a visual distraction. There was an age-related impairment of working memory recognition accuracy only in the combination of high memory load and distraction. These results suggest that when working memory maintenance systems are taxed, faulty recognition processes may underlie cognitive aging deficits in healthy older individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's reading processes revealed by pronunciation latencies and errors.

Conducted an experiment with 30 8-yr-olds to discover under what circumstances, if any, children use whole words, syllables, letter clusters, or letters as units during reading. Using I. Firth's (1972) list of familiar words and syllables, 3 classes of stimulus words were constructed: familiar words, pseudowords consisting of familiar syllables, and pseudowords consisting of unfamiliar syllables. The number of syllables, letter clusters, and letters in these words was systematically varied. Familiar words were found to be easier to process than pseudowords; pseudowords consisting of familiar syllables were easier to process than those consisting of unfamiliar syllables. Results indicate that syllables and letter clusters are probably not processed as units for any type of word, but there was slight evidence that letters may function as units, particularly for pseudowords. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of cognitive component processing skills that support skilled reading.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the differences in component processing skills of students of different ages and the developmental changes that occurred over 1 yr. The Ss in Exp 1 were 112 students in Grades 2–5 from a school district in western Massachusetts. They were administered a computer battery of tasks designed to measure speed and accuracy of processing on a number of component reading skills. The component skills measured were letter processing, word naming, pseudoword naming, concept activation, and syntactic and semantic processing. Of the original 112 students, 59 were located 1 yr later and were given parental permission to participate in a follow-up experiment. The 2 experiments trace the development of component processing skills and discuss the implications for a theory of development of component skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From reading to spelling and spelling to reading: Transfer goes both ways.

This study compares the effects of practice spelling and reading specific words on the orthographic representations in memory involved in reading both practiced words and new, unfamiliar words. Typically developing readers in Grade 2 (mean age = 7 years, 7 months) participated in a training study examining whether transfer can occur between reading and spelling following a series of reading and spelling practice sessions. Practice consisted of either repeated reading or repeated spelling of words with shared orthographic rime patterns. A series of mixed analyses of variance was used to examine generalization within skill and transfer across skill. Following practice, word-specific transfer across skill was found. Specifically, children were better able to spell words they had practiced reading and to read words they had practiced spelling. In addition, generalization to new words with practiced rime units was found both within a skill and across skills. However, transfer from spelling to reading was greater than transfer from reading to spelling. Results indicate that the orthographic representations established through practice can be used for both reading and spelling. Subsequently, reading and spelling curricula should be coordinated to benefit children maximally. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of microstructure processes in children's reading comprehension: Effect of number of different arguments.

Construction of a text microstructure is affected by the number of different arguments that must be activated and maintained in working memory, the number of propositions that must be formed, and the hierarchical arrangement of the propositions. Previous research has shown no developmental differences as a function of the latter 2 factors. The present study shows that there are, however, developmental differences in the effect of number of different arguments. 18 4th graders and 18 6th graders of high and average reading ability read and immediately recalled 24 paragraphs, half containing few and half many different arguments, from 3 content areas: history, science, and familiar experiences such as a trip to the zoo. Results indicate the difference between many- and few-different-argument passages in reading time per proposition recalled was significantly greater for 4th than for 6th graders. The results suggest that the effect is due to developmental differences in working memory that affect the overall retrievability of the microstructure but not how it is hierarchically organized. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring component and sets of cognitive processes in self-regulated learning.

Explored forms of cognitive engagement at 2 levels (component cognitive processes and sets of these components, labeled acquistion and transformation) that L. Corno and E. B. Mandinach (1983) described in their model of self-regulated learning (SRL). Data was collected on students' cognition using 3 different measures of SRL processes (a global self-report scale, a self-report scale administered immediately after each of 6 academic tasks, and traces of cognition obtained while working on tasks). Also, examined were correlations between these measures of SRL and aptitude variables. Multitrait-multimethod analyses revealed that measures of SRL are not coherent. A significant issue for future research is whether SRL should be characterized in terms of individual cognitive components or in terms of coordinated sets of cognitive components and, if so, how these levels should articulate to form a coherent picture of SRL. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)