YAG(Ce) crystal characterization with proton beams

A YAG(Ce) crystal has been characterized with a proton beam up to 100 MeV. Tests were performed to investigate the possibility of using this detector as a proton calorimeter. A crystal size has been chosen that is able to stop up to 200 MeV. Energy resolution and light response have been measured at Laboratori Nazionali del Sud with a proton beam up to 60 MeV and a spatial homogeneity study of the crystal has been performed at Loma Linda University Medical Center with a 100 MeV proton beam. The YAG(Ce) crystal showed a good energy resolution equal to 3.7% at 60 MeV and measurements, performed in the 30-60 MeV proton energy range, were fitted by Birks' equation. Using a silicon tracker to determine the particle entry point in the crystal, a spatial homogeneity value of 1.7% in the light response has been measured.     

Limitations of silicon diodes for clinical electron dosimetry

This work investigates the relevance of several factors affecting the response of silicon diode dosemeters in depth-dose scans of electron beams. These factors are electron energy, instantaneous dose rate, dose per pulse, photon/electron dose ratio and electron scattering angle (directional response). Data from the literature and our own experiments indicate that the impact of these factors may be up to +/-15%. Thus, the different factors would have to cancel out perfectly at all depths in order to produce true depth-dose curves. There are reports of good agreement between depth-doses measured with diodes and ionisation chambers. However, our measurements with a Scantronix electron field detector (EFD) diode and with a plane-parallel ionisation chamber show discrepancies both in the build-up and in the low-dose regions, with a ratio up to 1.4. Moreover, the absolute sensitivity of two diodes of the same EFD model was found to differ by a factor of 3, and this ratio was not constant but changed with depth between 5 and 15% in the low-dose regions of some clinical electron beams. Owing to these inhomogeneities among diodes even of the same model, corrections for each factor would have to be diode-specific and beam-specific. All these corrections would have to be determined using parallel plane chambers, as recommended by AAPM TG-25, which would be unrealistic in clinical practice. Our conclusion is that in general diodes are not reliable in the measurement of depth-dose curves of clinical electron beams.     

Response of silicon diode dosemeters to scattered radiation from megavoltage photon beams

Dose response effects of diodes due to the high atomic number of silicon relative to water are investigated. While quality chances in the primary component of a megavoltage beam with depth are minimal. Compton scattered photons are shown to have a substantial effect on the quality leading to their enhanced absorption in silicon via the photoelectric effect. Monte Carlo methods were used to study and model this phenomenon. Measurements of dose rate, depth and field size dependence are examined for commercially available diode detectors and ionisation chambers.     

A method for measuring tissue-equivalent dose using a pin diode and activation foil in epithermal neutron beams with EN < 100 keV

Silicon (Si) pin diodes can be used for neutron dosimetry by observing the change in forward bias voltage caused by neutron induced displacement damage in the diode junction. Pin diode energy response depends on Si displacement damage KERMA (K(Si)). It is hypothesised that tissue-equivalent (TE) neutron dose could be expressed as a linear combination of K(Si) and foil activation terms. Monte Carlo simulations (MCNP) of parallel monoenergetic neutron beams incident on a cylindrical TE phantom were used to calculate TE dose, K(Si) and Au, Cu and Mn foil activations along the central axis of the phantom. For spectra with neutron energies <100 keV, it is possible to estimate the TE kerma based on silicon damage kerma and Cu or Mn foil measurements. More accurate estimates are possible for spectra where the maximum neutron energy does not exceed 30 keV.     

A study of neutron radiation quality with a tissue-equivalent proportional counter for a low-energy accelerator-based in vivo neutron activation facility

The accelerator-based in vivo neutron activation facility at McMaster University has been used successfully for the measurement of several minor and trace elements in human hand bones due to their importance to health. Most of these in vivo measurements have been conducted at a proton beam energy (E(p)) of 2.00 MeV to optimise the activation of the selected element of interest with an effective dose of the same order as that received in chest X rays. However, measurement of other elements at the same facility requires beam energies other than 2.00 MeV. The range of energy of neutrons produced at these proton beam energies comes under the region where tissue-equivalent proportional counters (TEPCs) are known to experience difficulty in assessing the quality factor and dose equivalent. In this study, the response of TEPCs was investigated to determine the quality factor of neutron fields generated via the (7)Li(p, n)(7)Be reaction as a function of E(p) in the range 1.884-2.56 MeV at the position of hand irradiation in the facility. An interesting trend has been observed in the quality factor based on ICRP 60, Q(ICRP60), such that the maximum value was observed at E(p)=1.884 MeV (E(n)=33±16 keV) and then continued to decline with increasing E(p) until achieving a minimum value at E(p)=2.0 MeV despite a continuous increase in the mean neutron energy with E(p). This observation is contrary to what has been observed with direct fast neutrons where the quality factor was found to increase continuously with an increase in E(p) (i.e. increasing E(n)). The series of measurements conducted with thermal and fast neutron fields demonstrate that the (14)N(n, p)(14)C produced 580 keV protons in the detector play an important role in the response of the counter under 2.0 MeV proton energy (E(n) ≤ 250 keV). In contrast to the lower response of TEPCs to low-energy neutrons, the quality factor is overestimated in the range 1-2 depending on beam energy <2.0 MeV. This study provides an insight to understanding the response of TEPCs in low-energy neutron fields where the neutrons are moderated using a polyethylene moderator.     

两种典型结构强流自箍缩二极管技术研究

主要介绍了箍缩聚焦二极管和自箍缩离子束二极管的研究进展。重点介绍了近几年发展的阳极杆箍缩聚焦二极管的理论模拟和实验结果,在“闪光二号”加速器和2MV脉冲功率驱动源上进行了阳极杆箍缩二极管实验,二极管输出电压1．8—2．1MV,电流40—60kA,脉宽（FWHM）50～60n8,1m处的脉冲X剂量约20～30mGy,焦斑直径约Imm,X射线最高能量1．8MeV。在“闪光二号”加速器上开展了高功率离子束的产生和应用研究,给出了自箍缩反射离子束二极管的结构和工作原理,实验获得的离子束峰值电流～160kA,离子的峰值能量-500keV,开展了利用高功率质子束轰击19F靶产生6～7MeV准单能脉冲γ射线,模拟x射线热一力学效应等应用基础研究。     

Development of advanced-type multi-functional electronic personal dosemeter

An advanced-type small, light, multi-functional electronic personal dosemeter has been developed using silicon semiconductor radiation detectors for dose management of workers at nuclear power plants and accelerator facilities. This dosemeter is 62 x 82 x 27 mm(3) in size and approximately 130 g in weight, which is capable of measuring personal gamma ray and neutron dose equivalents, Hp(10), simultaneously. The neutron dose equivalent can be obtained using two types of silicon semiconductors: a slow-neutron sensor (<1 MeV) and a fast-neutron sensor (>1 MeV). The slow neutron sensor is a 10 x 10 mm(2) p-type silicon on which a natural boron layer is deposited around an aluminium electrode. The fast neutron sensor is also a 10 x 10 mm(2) p-type silicon crystal on which an amorphous silicon hydride is deposited. The neutron energy response corresponding to the fluence-to-dose-equivalent conversion coefficient given by ICRP Publication 74 has been evaluated using a monoenergetic neutron source from 250 keV to 15 MeV at the Fast Neutron Laboratory of Tohoku University. As the result, the Hp(10) response to neutrons in the energy range of 250 keV and 4.4 MeV within +/-50% difference has been obtained.     

Calibration of EPR signal dose response of tooth enamel to photons: experiment and Monte Carlo simulation

The experimental energy dependence of the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) radiation-induced signal at irradiation by photons in the energy range of 13 keV-1.25 MeV was analysed in terms of the absorbed dose in human tooth enamel. The latter was calculated using a Monte Carlo simulation of the photon and electron transport. The dependence of the calculated absorbed dose on the sample thickness was analysed. No energy dependence of the EPR signal on the absorbed dose in enamel was verified in the range of 37 keV-1.25 MeV. At 13 and 20 keV the EPR signal dose response was reduced by 8% probably due to sample powdering. Dose-depth profiles in enamel samples irradiated by 1.25 MeV photons in polymethylmethacrylate and aluminium build-up materials were calculated. It was concluded that secondary electron equilibrium conditions are better fulfilled for irradiation in aluminium, which makes this material preferable for calibration.     

Study of a solid state microdosemeter based on a monolithic silicon telescope: irradiations with low-energy neutrons and direct comparison with a cylindrical TEPC

A silicon device based on the monolithic silicon telescope technology coupled to a tissue-equivalent converter was proposed and investigated for solid state microdosimetry. The detector is constituted by a ΔE stage about 2 μm in thickness geometrically segmented in a matrix of micrometric diodes and a residual-energy measurement stage E about 500 μm in thickness. Each thin diode has a cylindrical sensitive volume 9 μm in nominal diameter, similar to that of a cylindrical tissue-equivalent proportional counter (TEPC). The silicon device and a cylindrical TEPC were irradiated in the same experimental conditions with quasi-monoenergetic neutrons of energy between 0.64 and 2.3 MeV at the INFN-Legnaro National Laboratories (LNL-INFN, Legnaro, Italy). The aim was to study the capability of the silicon-based system of reproducing microdosimetric spectra similar to those measured by a reference microdosemeter. The TEPC was set in order to simulate a tissue site about 2 μm in diameter. The spectra of the energy imparted to the ?E stage of the silicon telescope were corrected for tissue-equivalence through an optimized procedure that exploits the information from the residual energy measurement stage E. A geometrical correction based on parametric criteria for shape-equivalence was also applied. The agreement between the dose distributions of lineal energy and the corresponding mean values is satisfactory at each neutron energy considered.     

Silicon photodiode as a detector of exposure rate

The paper describes the utilization of a silicon photodiode as a detector of exposure dose rate. Theoretical considerations deal with the magnitude of the photocurrent as a function of minority carrier diffusion length and silicon thickness. Experimental results compare the sensitivity and radiation damage of photodiodes manufactured from various silicon materials. The photodiode energy dependence for photons in the range 7.6 keV to 1.25 MeV is also presented.     

Flux monitor diode radiation hardness testing

A flux monitor diode is being explored as an option for measurement of the output of an X-ray tube that is used for active transmission measurements on a pipe containing UF₆ gas. The measured flux can be used to correct for any instabilities in the X-ray tube or the high voltage power supply. For this measurement, we are using a silicon junction p-n photodiode, model AXUV100GX, developed by International Radiation Detectors, Inc. (IRD, Inc.). This diode has a silicon thickness of 104 μ and a thin (3-7 nm) silicon dioxide junction passivating, protective entrance window. These diodes have been extensively tested for radiation hardness in the UV range. However, we intend to operate mainly in the 10-40 keV X-ray region. We are performing radiation hardness testing over this energy range, with the energy spectrum that would pass through the diode during normal operation. A long-term measurement was performed at a high flux, which simulated over 80 years of operation. No significant degradation was seen over this time. Fluctuations were found to be within the 0.1% operationally acceptable error range. After irradiation, an I-V characterization showed a temporary irradiation effect which decayed over time. This effect is small because we operate the diode without external bias.     

A prototype personal neutron dosemeter with one silicon diode

The performance of a personal neutron dosemeter with a single silicon diode using a linear combination of its pulse height information was studied. Its dosimetric behaviour in fields with neutrons of different energy and directional distribution is shown for neutron energies ranging from thermal to 100 MeV and for directions of incidence ranging from frontal to lateral. The dosemeter is photon-insensitive and its dose detection threshold is at about 20 microSv. The dosimetric characteristics are compared with those of commercial dosemeters based on silicon detectors.     

Alanine response to proton beams in the 1.6-6.1 MeV energy range

Alanine response to low-energy protons was studied with alanine dosemeters of 2 mm thickness, irradiated with proton beams of energy in the 1.6-6.1 MeV range. The detector's range-averaged relative effectiveness to 60Co radiation ranged from 0.61 to 0.65. For fluence values up to 5 x 10(10) protons x cm(-2), the alanine response was linear.     

离子注入缺陷局域掺杂的高效率硅pn结发光二极管

本文将硼离子注入n型硅片制备出硅pn结发光二极管,系统研究了硼离子的注入剂量、能量、以及温度等条件对硅pn结电致发光效率的影响。随着注入的B原子浓度的提高,硅pn结二极管的电致发光效率显著增强,在B原子浓度接近2倍于退火温度下的固溶度时,室温下的电致发光效率达到最大值0.12%,比传统的硅pn结发光二极管增强了2-3个数量级。在低温电致发光光谱中,发现了两个来自局部掺杂缺陷的束缚激子发光峰。随着温度的升高,束缚激子的发光峰出现温度猝灭,束缚激子离化为自由电子和空穴,增加了硅带间自由激子复合的发光效率,从而使电致发光呈现随温度增加而增强的反常温度效应。     

LET and dose dependence of TLD-100 glow curve after exposure to intermediate-energy ions

We present results from measurements performed with low fluences (10(5)-10(6) cm(-2)) of 15, 25 and 40 MeV u(-1) carbon, 25 MeV u(-1) oxygen and 40 MeV u(-1) neon ions incident on TLD-100 chips. Dosemeters were arranged individually or in stacks in front of the beam, allowing the study of various linear energy transfer (LET) values simultaneously. The thermoluminescence (TL) total signal is observed to be a linear function of deposited energy. To assess the contribution to the glow curve from the high-temperature peaks, two methods were studied: ratios of peak heights (peak 7 with respect to peak 5), and ratios of areas of the deconvoluted high-temperature peaks with respect to peak 5. The ratios were evaluated as a function of dose, showing in both methods a dependence on LET and ion identity. Some of the studied ions show these ratios to be independent of dose, up to 500 mGy, while for other ions, departures from linearity up to 4.5% +/- 2.5% per 100 mGy are observed at 500 mGy. These results show that, in general, the incident radiation LET is not a parameter that can be deduced from the glow curve.     

Dose response of commercially available optically stimulated luminescent detector, Al2O3:C for megavoltage photons and electrons

This study examined the dose response of an optically stimulated luminescence dosemeter (OSLD) to megavoltage photon and electron beams. A nanoDot? dosemeter was used to measure the dose response of the OSLD. Photons of 6-15 MV and electrons of 9-20 MeV were delivered by a Varian 21iX machine (Varian Medical System, Inc. Milpitas, CA, USA). The energy dependency was <1 %. For the 6-MV photons, the dose was linear until 200 cGy. The superficial dose measurements revealed photon irradiation to have an angular dependency. The nanoDot? dosemeter has potential use as an in vivo dosimetric tool that is independent of the energy, has dose linearity and a rapid response compared with normal in vivo dosimetric tools, such as thermoluminescence detectors. However, the OSLD must be treated very carefully due to the high angular dependency of the photon beam.     

Potential clinical utility of a fibre optic-coupled dosemeter for dose measurements in diagnostic radiology

Many types of dosemeters have been investigated for absorbed dose measurements in diagnostic radiology, including ionisation chambers, metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor dosemeters, thermoluminescent dosemeters, optically stimulated luminescence detectors, film and diodes. Each of the aforementioned dosemeters suffers from a critical limitation, either the need to interrogate, or read, the dosemeter to retrieve dose information or large size to achieve adequate sensitivity. This work presents an evaluation of a fibre optic-coupled dosemeter (FOCD) for use in diagnostic radiology dose measurement. This dosemeter is small, tissue-equivalent and capable of providing true real-time dose information. The FOCD has been evaluated for dose linearity, angular dependence, sensitivity and energy dependence at energies, beam qualities and beam quantities relevant to diagnostic radiology. The FOCD displayed excellent dose linearity and high sensitivity, while exhibiting minimal angular dependence of response. However, the dosemeter does exhibit positive energy dependence, and is subject to attenuation of response when bent.     

Advantages of passive detectors for the determination of the cosmic ray induced neutron environment

Due to the pronounced energy dependence of the neutron quality factor, accurate assessment of the biologically relevant dose requires knowledge of the spectral neutron fluence rate. Bonner sphere spectrometers (BSSs) are the only instruments which provide a sufficient response over practically the whole energy range of the cosmic ray induced neutron component. Measurements in a 62 MeV proton beam at Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland, and in the CERN-EU high-energy reference field led to the assumption that conventional active devices for the detection of thermal neutrons inside the BSS, e.g. 6Lil(Eu) scintillators, also respond to charged particles when used in high-energy mixed radiation fields. The effects of these particles cannot be suppressed by amplitude discrimination and are subsequently misinterpreted as neutron radiation. In contrast, paired TLD-600 and TLD-700 thermoluminescence dosemeters allow the determination of a net thermal neutron signal.     

Analysis of the neutron component at high altitude mountains using active and passive measurement devices

The European Council directive 96/29/Euratom requires dosimetric precautions if the effective dose exceeds 1 mSv/a. On an average, this value is exceeded by aircrew members. Roughly half of the radiation exposure at flight altitudes is caused by cosmic ray-induced neutrons. Active (6LiI(Eu)-scintillator) and passive (TLDs) Bonner sphere spectrometers were used to determine the neutron energy spectra atop Mt. Sonnblick (3105 m) and Mt. Kitzsteinhorn (3029 m). Further measurements in a mixed radiation field at CERN as well as in a proton beam of 62 MeV at Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland, confirmed that not only neutrons but also charged particles contribute to the readings of active detectors, whereas TLD-600 and TLD-700 in pair allow the determination of the thermal neutron flux. Unfolding of the detector data obtained atop both mountains shows two relative maxima around 1 MeV and 85 MeV, which have to be considered for the assessment of the biologically relevant dose equivalent. By convoluting the spectra with appropriate conversion functions the neutron dose equivalent rate was determined to be 150 +/- 15 nSv/h. The total dose equivalent rate determined by the HTR-method was 210 +/- 15 nSv/h. The results are in good agreement with LET-spectrometer and Sievert counter measurements carried out simultaneously.     

Irradiation effects in semiconductor

Samples of crystalline silicon, porous silicon, gallium arsenide and silicon diodes were exposed to 50–80 MeV silicon and oxygen ions in the fluence range of the order of 10¹³ to 10¹⁴ ions/cm². The irradiated samples were characterized to obtain information on the relative concentration and depth distribution of the induced defects. For comparison a few silicon diodes and crystalline silicon samples were also exposed to 6 MeV electrons. The main techniques used for the analysis of silicon samples were low angle X-ray diffraction, photo-luminescence spectroscopy and lifetime of minority carriers, whereas diodes were characterized on the basis of switching parameters. It is observed that a large number of defects are produced in the surface region of each of the irradiated semiconductor sample though the energy deposited in the surface region through electronic loss is three orders of magnitude greater than that of nuclear collisions.