Spatiotemporal changes of landscape pattern in response to urbanization

The combined method of urban gradient analysis and landscape metrics in analyzing the changes of landscape pattern has been widely applied since its introduction by Luck and Wu (2002). In order to address the temporal dynamics of landscape change, this study integrated transect analysis with temporal trend analysis and specifically discussed how changes of residential pattern are related to forms of urban growth. Using Dane County, Wisconsin, USA as an example, a 60 km transect passing through the City of Madison was set up to represent a continuum of rural-urban-rural landscapes. Changes of landscape pattern from 1968 to 2000 were analyzed by FRAGSTATS with four metrics—percentage of landscape (PLAND), Shannon's evenness index (SHEI), patch density (PD), and mean patch size (MPS). Findings from metric analyses revealed that the degree of land-use diversity and landscape fragmentation is positively related to the degree of urbanization.Specifically, at the class-level, residential land-use type shows the strongest positive relationship to the degree of urbanization in all of the class-level metrics adopted. Changes in residential land-use pattern were further analyzed with the number of housing units. The analyses revealed that there are different patterns of residential development along the transect in the study area—with the core urban area expanding outward in a contiguous manner while the rural areas have scattered development. This study demonstrated the additional insights into landscape change by integrating the spatial and the temporal perspectives and by targeting the forms of residential developments.     

Spatio-temporal dynamics and evolution of land use change and landscape pattern in response to rapid urbanization

Analyzing spatio-temporal characteristics of land use change is essential for understanding and assessing ecological consequence of urbanization. More importantly, such analysis can provide basic information for appropriate decision-making. By integrating historical high spatial-resolution SPOT images and spatial metrics, this study explored the spatio-temporal dynamics and evolution of land use change and landscape pattern in response to the rapid urbanization process of a booming-developing city in China from 1996 to 2006. Accurate and consistent land use change information was first extracted by the change detection method proposed in this study. The changes of landscape pattern were then analyzed using a series of spatial metrics which were derived from FRAGSTATS software. The results indicated that the rapid urbanization process has brought about enormous land use changes and urban growth at an unprecedented scale and rate and, consequently, given rise to substantial impacts on the landscape pattern. Findings further revealed that cropland and water were the major land use types developed for urban sprawl. Meanwhile, the landscape pattern underwent fundamental transition from agricultural-land-use dominant landscape to urban-land-use dominant landscape spanning the 10 years. The results not only confirmed the applicability and effectiveness of the combined method of remote sensing and metrics, but also revealed notable spatio-temporal features of land use change and landscape pattern dynamics throughout the different time periods (1996–2000, 2000–2003 and 2003–2006).     

辽东湾海岸侵蚀病害模式及其等级分布

为查清辽东湾海岸侵蚀的发育类型及等级分布规律,选择辽东湾典型海岸段为重点研究区域,结合现场调查及相关资料,对辽东湾海岸侵蚀情况进行了细致研究,结果表明,辽东湾海岸侵蚀按病害模式来分,可分为冲磨蚀型、浪坎坍塌型、块状崩落型、岩溶凹陷型、界面滑移型5种类型;按蚀淤程度划分,可分为严重侵蚀、强侵蚀、侵蚀、微侵蚀、稳定5种等级。其中,沙质海岸侵蚀模式以浪坎坍塌型为主,基岩海岸侵蚀模式主要表现为块状崩落型和岩溶凹陷型,粉沙淤泥质海岸侵蚀模式以冲磨蚀型为主。这有助于辽东湾海岸带减灾、防灾目标的实现,为海岸侵蚀灾害的进一步研究打下基础。     

An evaluation of VEGETATION-1 imagery for broad-scale landscape mapping of Russia: effects of resolution on landscape pattern

The problem of efficient use of multi-scale data for land-cover and landscape mapping has already attracted considerable attention in landscape ecology and some other disciplines. Over the last few decades, however, with the development of satellite remote sensing techniques, the questions of efficient planetary and macro-regional ecological mapping and modeling and integration of multi-scale data have become especially pertinent. The purpose of this study is to test the suitability of the coarse-resolution VEGETATION/SPOT imagery for landscape mapping. Effects of changing spatial resolution on land-cover proportion estimates were examined in 16 different landscapes using spatially degraded high-resolution imagery from the Russian satellite, RESURS-F. Comparison of simulated coarse-resolution data and original images and ancillary data for sites with different landscape patterns, showed strong scale dependence of the landscape characteristics (land-cover proportion, fragmentation, patchiness) in different case study areas, such as sub-boreal forest, sub-urban areas, and an agricultural region in the steppe zone.     

An empirical approach to estimate soil erosion risk in Spain

Soil erosion is one of the most important factors in land degradation and influences desertification worldwide. In 2001, the Spanish Ministry of the Environment launched the ‘National Inventory of Soil Erosion (INES) 2002-2012’ to study the process of soil erosion in Spain. The aim of the current article is to assess the usefulness of this National Inventory as an instrument of control, measurement and monitoring of soil erosion in Spain. The methodology and main features of this National Inventory are described in detail. The results achieved as of the end of May 2010 are presented, together with an explanation of the utility of the Inventory as a tool for planning forest hydrologic restoration, soil protection, erosion control, and protection against desertification. Finally, the authors make a comparative analysis of similar initiatives for assessing soil erosion in other countries at the national and European levels.     

The dynamics of tree cover change in a rural Australian landscape

This study investigated the change in tree cover in a 130 000 ha rural landscape near Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia between 1954 and 1989. Using aerial photographs, tree cover was assessed using five cover classifications (<2% cover, 2.1–25%, 25.1–50%, >50% or exotic pine plantation), with the resulting data analysed using a Geographic Information System. Overall, there was a loss of woodland/forest and an increase in the area of cleared land and Pinus radiata plantations over 35 years. Although some regeneration of woodland/forest cover occurred on marginal farmland, the general trend of loss and fragmentation has serious ramifications for nature conservation and agricultural production. The eastern and western portions of the study area exhibited quite different patterns in tree cover change, highlighting the need for examining landscapes at appropriate spatial and temporal scales.     

Analyses of urban landscape dynamics using multi-temporal satellite images: A comparison of two petroleum-oriented cities

Rapid urbanization, as a result of population growth and migration from rural to urban, has been recognized as a critical process in urban areas. This study analyzed the spatiotemporal landscape dynamics using multi-temporal satellite images in two petroleum-based cities: Houston, Texas in the United States and Daqing, Heilongjiang province in China. Both cities expanded rapidly on the basis of the petroleum industries during the last 50 years; however, under different socio-political contexts. Comparing the landscape pattern and dynamics in these two cities, we can identify how the urbanization in these two petroleum-based cities affects the landscape pattern, especially in the natural landscapes. A set of landscape indices with supplementary ecological meanings was chosen to facilitate our analyses of spatial dynamics over a span of 20 years. On the basis of the derived indices, a general trend of landscape change was revealed in these two cities: natural landscapes such as grassland and wetland were degraded or fragmented into a more heterogeneous pattern, while the human landscapes such as residential area expanded greatly by replacing other natural classes.     

Soil erosion susceptibility of Johor River basin

Malaysia is undergoing tremendous environmental changes due to population growth, economic development and urbanization. This has stimulated a rapid land use changes which in turn has increased the rate of soil erosion and river sedimentation. In this study, Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and the Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) are applied within a geographical information system (GIS) to assess the spatial pattern of soil erosion susceptibility of Johor River basin, Malaysia. Geomorphological, landuse and soil information along with other hydrological data such as, annual peak flow and runoff volumes are used to estimate the parameters required for the calculation of soil erosion susceptibility. The results show that annual erosion rate varies between 0.2 and 248.2 t/ha/year according to USLE, and between 19.2 and 2179.9 thousand tons per event according to MUSLE. The land cover management is found as the major factor responsible for soil erosion in the basin.     

北"引黄"工程方案设计暨今后城市给水格局调整

针对北“引黄”工程概况，介绍了其周边城市的给水现状及工程规模，提出了具体的工艺选择与设计方案，并对今后城市供水格局的调整方向作了简要说明。     

Modeling the dynamics of landscape structure in Asia’s emerging desakota regions: a case study in Shenzhen

The rapid urbanization taking place in Asia since 1970 has exhibited a process different from that of the developed countries in the West. This process has contributed to the emergence of a new landscape in Asia — widely known as the desakota (a combination of two Indonesian words: “desa” for village, “kota” for town) regions described in the McGee–Ginsburg model. These desakota regions are characterized by an intense mix of agricultural and non-agricultural activities that often stretch along corridors between large city cores. Although, the McGee–Ginsburg model captures the socio-demographic dimensions of the rapid urbanization process, little is known about the dynamics of landscape structures in the emerging desakota regions in Asia. By linking remote sensing, landscape characterization indices, and cellular automata modeling with geographic information systems (GIS), this paper develops a GIS-based spatial analysis and modeling approach to study the landscape dynamics of the desakota regions in southeast China. We tested our method using data between 1992 and 1996 for the city of Longhua in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone — one of the fastest growing areas in southeast China. The results not only confirm the effectiveness of GIS-based spatial analysis and modeling approach in studying the ecological impacts of human activities, but also reveal the salient features of landscape dynamics in the desakota regions. Drawing from the results of this research, we conclude that the pace of urbanization and the size of desakota regions must be controlled in order to create a sustainable future in developing countries.     

Biodiversity dynamics: from population and community ecology approaches to a landscape ecology point of view

Species richness and species diversity are classic concepts in ecology. What is new in the science of biodiversity after the Convention on Biological Diversity is: (1) that the emphasis has moved from the species to the ecosystem; (2) that the functional significance of biodiversity has been stressed. Thus, population and community ecology along with landscape ecology, should offer the best theoretical framework to analyse what can be called ‘biodiversity dynamics’.Some promising pathways and areas are emphasized and the very concept of functional diversity is discussed. Species richness, genetic variability and extinction probability are closely linked with landscape traits such as habitat diversity, structural heterogeneity, patch dynamics and perturbations. Thus, it is suggested that landscape ecology hold a central role, since it will allow the response to biodiversity issues in the framework of environmental heterogeneity and patchiness.     

城市土壤对园林植物生长的影响及其改善措施

通过对城市土壤因子分析，阐述了城市土壤各因子对园林植物生长的不良影响，并提出了减少城市土壤对园林植物生长不良影响的改善措施。     

Differential response of selected taxa to landscape context and agricultural intensification

Understanding the dynamics of biodiversity in changing agricultural landscapes is a goal for nature conservation and agricultural policies. Agriculture operates at several spatio-temporal levels from field to landscape, and induces differential response of communities according to their ecological traits. Reactions of several taxa to landscape and agricultural changes was conducted along landscape gradients in northern Brittany (France) gathering 14 sites. Landscapes ranged from fine grained areas, with a large proportion of permanent grasslands, wood and hedgerows, to coarse grained ones dominated by crops. Response of communities were either loss of species along the gradient (as for Diptera Chironomidae and Empididae), replacement (Coleoptera Carabidae) and no change in species composition (small mammals). In this paper, we present why these taxa react in such different ways according to their life history traits, their mobility patterns and to which parameters of landscape structure or agriculture intensification they are sensitive. Density of hedgerow networks, and permeability of individual hedgerows determine the spatial distribution of adults Diptera according to their flying ability. Mean body size of carabid beetles significantly decreases along the gradient of agricultural intensification, small species adapted to disturbance replacing large ones that are characteristic of stable habitats. The same small mammal species are found all along the two gradients, but their relative abundance is linked to the importance of crops versus more stable habitats in the landscape.We concluded that species survival in those fine grained agricultural landscapes depends on processes operating at the site scale and defining habitat quality, and processes operating at the landscape and/or metapopulation scale such as landscape modifications in connectivity and habitat availability.     

Inverse analysis of laboratory data and observations for evaluation of backward erosion piping process

An inverse analysis procedure has been developed to interpret collected pore pressure data and observations during backward erosion piping (BEP) initiation and progression in sandy soils. The procedure has been applied to laboratory models designed to mimic the initiation and progression of BEP through a constricted vertical outlet. The inverse analysis uses three-dimensional (3D) finite element method (FEM) to successively produce models of the hydraulic head regime surrounding progressive stages of BEP based on observations at the sample surface and pore pressure measurements obtained from the laboratory models. The inverse analysis results in a series of 3D contour plots that represent the hydraulic-head regime at each stage of the BEP development, allowing for assessing the development of BEP mechanism as well as calculating the critical hydraulic conditions required for various BEP stages to initiate and progress. Interpretation of the results identified four significant stages of the piping process: (1) loosened zone initiation, (2) channel initiation and progression, (3) riser sand fluidization, and (4) loosened zone progression. Interpretation of the hydraulic head contour plots allows assessment of the critical hydraulic gradients needed to initiate and progress various components of the BEP development.     

Building response to tunnelling

Understanding how buildings respond to tunnelling-induced ground movements is an area of great importance for urban tunnelling projects, particularly for risk management. In this paper, observations of building response to tunnelling, from both centrifuge modelling and a field study in Bologna, are used to identify mechanisms governing the soil–structure interaction. Centrifuge modelling was carried out on an 8-m-diameter beam centrifuge at Cambridge University, with buildings being modelled as highly simplified elastic and inelastic beams of varying stiffness and geometry. The Bologna case study presents the response of two different buildings to the construction of a sprayed concrete lining (SCL) tunnel, 12 m in diameter, with jet grouting and face reinforcement.In both studies, a comparison of the building settlement and horizontal displacement profiles, with the greenfield ground movements, enables the soil structure interaction to be quantified. Encouraging agreement between the modification to the greenfield settlement profile, displayed by the buildings, and estimates made from existing predictive tools is observed. Similarly, both studies indicate that the horizontal strains, induced in the buildings, are typically at least an order of magnitude smaller than the greenfield values. This is consistent with observations in the literature. The potential modification to the settlement distortions is shown to have significant implications on the estimated level of damage. Potential issues for infrastructures connected to buildings, arising from the embedment of rigid buildings into the soil, are also highlighted.     

Changes in farming system and population as drivers of land cover and landscape dynamics: The case of enclosed and semi-openfield systems in Northern Galicia (Spain)

In this study, we aimed to document the changes in the bocage and semi-openfield landscapes of Northern Galicia from the second half of the 20th century and analyse the factors driving landscape changes. In particular, we examined (1) the dynamics of the field systems characteristics in these landscapes and (2) the interrelations with changes in dominant land cover, population and farming systems (in terms of productive structure, land use system and farming practices) dynamics. The picture of the1950s showed mainly semi-openfield field systems and nucleated villages that extended through valleys in the lowland, with banks in rough coastline sectors. In the highlands we found enclosed fields and scattered hamlets interspersed within large extensions of scrubland. In between both systems, a transitional area with mixed characteristics appeared. In 2000, the transitional area expanded from the former semi-openfields and banks areas, while the highlands still retain the enclosed character. The dominant land cover has experienced significant changes throughout the area, following an increase in woodland. A reorientation of the farming system was observed, a shift in which cropland lost importance with regard to grassland, the use of scrubland became marginal and forestry increased. The decrease in the number of farms and livestock shows decline in agricultural activity. This can be closely related to changes in dominant land cover and cropping patterns. Despite recent changes, this area still retains characteristic features of traditional landscapes such as the spatial pattern of field systems and ancestral cultural practices (e.g. extensive grazing of the scrubland).     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of land use pattern in Turkey: A case study in İnegöl

Recognition and understanding of landscape dynamics as a historical legacy of disturbances are necessary for sustainable management of forest ecosystems. This study analyzed forest dynamics and spatial–temporal changes in land use/land cover pattern in a sub-temperate like alluvial forest land with 1778 km² area along the Eagan Sea coast of Turkey (İnegöl). This area is studied by comparing Landsat images from 1987 to 2001 and evaluated with spatial analyses of forest cover type maps from 1972, 1983, 1993 to 2004 using GIS. The study investigated temporal changes of spatial structure of forest conditions over the period using Fragstats™.The results showed that the forested areas increased both in between 1972 and 1993 years (3.3%) and between 1987 and 2001 years (6.7%). In terms of spatial configuration, İnegöl forests are generally fragmented in the latter periods due to intensive forest utilization, illegal use, expansion of settlements and infrastructural development in the lowlands. Land use pattern significantly changed over time depending on a few factors such as unregulated management actions, social pressure and demographic movements. In conclusion, land use changes have developed in favor of forestry over time between 1972–1993 and 1987–2001. The study revealed that demographic movements have a minor effect on landscape dynamics. Both spatial and temporal changes and the factors affecting these changes should be determined for developing sustainable management of forest resources.     

一咏三叹，由景至境 ——《诗经·国风》中自然景观展现特征及先民审美模式研究

《诗经》是我国诗歌史上举足轻重的存 在,《国风》正是《诗经》的精华。在《国风》诗 中,大量的诗歌涉及到了自然景观,而对于《诗 经》的研究大多集中在文史哲领域,立足于风景 园林学的相关研究较为匮乏,作为描写风景的最 早诗篇尚未被研究颇为遗憾。因此将其作为研 究重点,首先对《国风》中的自然景观要素进行 提取、分类,分析其特点,得出其层次性和分时 性的展现规律,以此为基础总结出先民既存型、 演化型和类比型三种审美模式,即对中国人原 生情感中的自然景观的感知方式和审美模式的 溯源。寻找中国人对自然景观情感的原始表达, 以及遗传意义,以期为现今的风景遗产保护与 景观设计提供参考与启示。     

Modeling spatially explicit population dynamics of Pterostichus melanarius I11. (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in response to changes in the composition and configuration of agricultural landscapes

The intensification of agricultural practices has induced the local, national and regional extinction of many species and also affected ecosystem services provided by biodiversity such as biological control of agricultural pests. We model the population dynamics of Pterostichus melanarius (Coleoptera: Carabidae), a carabid beetle often used as indicator species of habitat changes, by a joint model that combined a matrix model of population dynamics including local dispersal with an explicit model of the patchy landscape of the polders of the Bay of Mont St. Michel (Brittany, France). We used this model to evaluate the effects of landscape composition and configuration on the spatial population dynamics of this carabid beetle, and also investigated the consequences that different management strategies of the structure and composition of an agricultural landscape can have on its abundance and spatial distribution. The results of this study highlight that semi-habitats (field edges, dykes, hedgerows) usually considered as shelters for wintering play a key role as well for summer recruitment. We find that there is an optimal cluster size of patches for population viability that is induced by the seasonal movement of P. melanarius. However, the effect of increasing the amount of semi-natural habitats patches on the viability of this population critically depend on the spatial arrangement, connectivity and spatial alternation of the network of semi-natural habitats, a feature that should be considered in the conservation and management actions in the landscape context.