Psychologists' use of homework assignments in clinical practice.

Does the average professional psychologist use homework in clinical practice? If so, how frequently and how systematic is he or she in recommending homework? Ninety-eight percent of the 221 New Zealand practicing psychologists surveyed reported using homework assignments. Although practitioners reported using homework in an average of 57% of sessions, a higher rate (66% of sessions) was reported among those using cognitive and behavioral approaches to therapy. Despite this fact, only 25% of all psychologists reported using systematic procedures for recommending homework. The use of homework in clinical practice may need modification to ensure that clients receive maximum benefit from homework assignments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Can between-session (homework) activities be considered a common factor in psychotherapy?

A common goal for psychotherapies is to enable patients to improve their functioning and reduce distress in the situations and interpersonal contexts in which their problems exist. Although generally associated with behavioral, cognitive, couples, and family therapies, the use of the time between consultation sessions through therapeutic activities is implicit to all psychotherapies. This special series in Journal of Psychotherapy Integration represents an initial effort to make explicit the role of between-session 'homework' assignments in behavioral, client centered, cognitive, experiential, interpersonal, psychodynamic, and systemic approaches. Expert theoreticians, researchers, and practitioners present theoretical and clinical case examples to illustrate homework's role in assisting patient therapeutic progress. We synthesize themes from the issue in a concluding piece in the interests of facilitating future theoretical and empirical work on homework in psychotherapy integration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Handbook of homework assignments in psychotherapy: Research, practice, and prevention.

Reviews the book, Handbook of homework assignments in psychotherapy: Research, practice, and prevention edited by Nikolaos Kazantzis and Luciano L'Abate (see record 2006-11928-000). Reading this book title quickly one might think that this is a book of practical homework ideas, worksheets, and resources for clinicians. Reading it again more carefully, one discerns that it is more than that. What the editors have planned for the reader is a complete discussion of how therapy and personal change is supported by between-session activities in which the client engages. The book operationally defines "homework" in various kinds of therapy, the role that it plays in the change process, and presents research related to those important between-session tasks. Given this breadth, it is not surprising that the book is aimed at practitioners and researchers with all ranges of experience. The book is organised into four parts to help the reader with this diverse material. Part 1 reviews the concept and implementation of homework across nine well-known modalities (behavioural, client-centered, cognitive, emotion-focussed, interpersonal, psychodynamic, acceptance and commitment, brief strategic family, and personal construct therapies). Parts 2 and 3 of the book focus more on specific populations and disorders, including older adults, couples, and families. The final section of the book contains three "future" oriented chapters in distinct areas: research, practise, and prevention. Readers looking for an "academic" perspective on homework, a comparison of different approaches to between-session work, and inspiration in working with different populations will find a great deal here. The book may be less useful as quick reference on homework ideas for a client who is coming in to a session later today. It really does represent a "first to market" work that will be foundational for others interested in the theory and practise of psychotherapy homework, and certainly makes a very unique contribution. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships among attitudes about homework, amount of homework assigned and completed, and student achievement.

Students (n?=?709), parents, and teachers (n?=?82) completed a questionnaire concerning amount of homework assigned by teachers, portion of assignments completed by students, and attitudes about homework. Student achievement measures were also collected. Weak relations were found between the amount of homework assigned and student achievement. Positive relations were found between the amount of homework students completed and achievement, especially at upper grades (6–12). At lower grades (2 and 4), teacher-assigned homework was related to negative student attitudes. At upper grades, teachers with more positive attitudes toward homework and those whose students performed more poorly on standardized tests reported assigning more homework. A path analysis for lower grades indicated that class grades were predicted only by standardized test scores and the proportion of homework completed by students. At upper grades, class grade predictors also included parent, teacher, and student attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power to detect homework effects in psychotherapy outcome research.

Studies of homework effects in psychotherapy outcome have produced inconsistent results. Although these findings may reflect the comparability of psychotherapy with and without homework assignments, many of these studies may not have been sensitive enough to detect the effects sizes (ESs) likely to be found when examining homework effects. The present study evaluated the power of homework research and showed that, on average, current power levels are relatively weak in controlled studies ranging from 0.58 for large ESs to 0.09 for small ESs. Thus, inconsistent findings between studies may very well be due to low statistical power. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Homework works if homework quality is high: Using multilevel modeling to predict the development of achievement in mathematics.

The present study examined the associations of 2 indicators of homework quality (homework selection and homework challenge) with homework motivation, homework behavior, and mathematics achievement. Multilevel modeling was used to analyze longitudinal data from a representative national sample of 3,483 students in Grades 9 and 10; homework effects were analyzed at the student and the class level simultaneously. Students who perceived their homework assignments to be well selected reported higher homework motivation, and homework behavior at both the student and the class level predicted later achievement at the class level. Homework assignments perceived to be cognitively challenging were differentially associated with achievement at the student and the class level. Students who perceived their homework to be challenging (student level) showed relatively poor performance, but homework challenge was positively related to achievement at the class level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of between-session homework in systems-oriented individual psychotherapy.

This article focuses on the use of between-session homework assignments in Unified Therapy, an individual psychotherapy approach that integrates psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, and family systems therapies. Unified therapy theory posits that, in clients with personality disturbances, ongoing and recurrent interpersonal behavior patterns within their family of origin serve as both behavioral triggers to and reinforcers of self-destructive or self-defeating behavior. Family behavior is believed to be the most powerful such environmental factor and is believed to have far more influence on patients than a therapist. Homework assignments are geared toward implementing strategies by which dysfunctional family patterns are altered. Strategies are designed by the patient and therapist, using role-playing techniques, which are described. A case example is presented to demonstrate the use of such homework throughout the arc of psychotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Process of Recommending Homework in Psychotherapy: A Review of Therapist Delivery Methods, Client Acceptability, and Factors That Affect Compliance.

Although the link between homework use and positive psychotherapy outcomes has been established, relatively little is known about the therapeutic processes, or factors, that promote homework compliance. Homework compliance may be viewed as an indicator of client commitment and involvement in psychotherapy. This article presents the results of a systematic review of research, including 16 empirical studies, related to the homework recommendation process. Findings relate to the frequency and type of homework that therapists deliver, factors that promote client acceptability of homework recommendations, and factors that affect compliance. On the basis of these findings, the authors propose a theoretically and empirically based, 6-phase conceptual model of the homework recommendation process. They also propose specific strategies for recommending homework to clients and directions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of parent-reported homework problems among ADHD-referred and non-referred children.

This study was the first to investigate patterns of homework problems, as assessed by parent reports on the Homework Problem Checklist (HPC), among children in general education and those referred to an evaluation and treatment program for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In Study 1, parents of general education students in grades 3 through 6 (n = 675) completed the HPC. An exploratory factor analysis revealed two salient factors: Inattention/Avoidance of Homework (Factor I), and Poor Productivity/Nonadherence with Homework Rules (Factor II). Study 2, an exploratory factor analysis of a clinic-referred sample (grades 1 through 8; n = 356), uncovered a factor structure that was highly similar to that of the general sample. For purposes of validation, the HPC factors were correlated with subscales from the Behavior Assessment System for Children-Parent and Teacher Ratings Scales. These correlations demonstrated that Factor I was primarily related to aspects of homework functioning that are readily observable by parents (e.g., inattention, avoidance of work, and anxiety during homework); Factor II was primarily related to aspects of homework functioning that are observable by both parents and teachers (failure to accurately record homework assignments, and failure to complete and submit homework). The two-factor model is a useful way to conceptualize homework problems and has important implications for future practice and research aimed at improving assessment and intervention for children with significant homework difficulties. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Efficacy of an organization skills intervention to improve the academic functioning of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) exhibit significant academic impairments, as evidenced by poor academic achievement, grade retention, and school dropout. Deficits in organization skills may contribute to these academic impairments, as children with ADHD frequently lose assignments, misplace their completed work, and have difficulty planning for tests. The present study examined the pilot efficacy of an 8-week organization skills intervention for children with ADHD. Thirty-seven children were randomly assigned to receive the intervention immediately or to a wait-list control. Participants made significant improvements in organization and homework management skills during the intervention and these gains were maintained at 8-week follow-up. Parents of children in the intervention group reported decreased homework problems. Children in the intervention group also demonstrated pre-post gains on teacher ratings of academic impairment and GPA. This study suggests that targeted academic skills interventions have the potential to improve overall academic performance among children with ADHD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Between-teacher differences in homework assignments and the development of students' homework effort, homework emotions, and achievement.

The study examines whether teachers' homework objectives, implementation practices, and attitudes toward parental involvement are associated with the development of students' homework effort, homework emotions, and achievement during Grade 8. A total of 63 teachers (40 male, 23 female; mean teaching experience: M = 17.5 years) of French as a 2nd language and their 1,299 Grade 8 students (51.2% female; mean age at first measurement point: M = 13.84, SD = 0.56) participated in the study. In multilevel models, teachers' homework attitudes and behaviors were specified to predict outcomes at the end of Grade 8, controlling for covariates at the beginning of Grade 8. A low emphasis on drill and practice tasks and a high emphasis on motivation were associated with favorable developments in homework effort and achievement. Controlling homework assignments were associated with less homework effort and more negative homework emotions; the opposite pattern was found for students whose teacher supported student homework autonomy rather than parental homework involvement. The authors call for a systematic integration of findings from homework research in teacher training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Larsson, Kaldo, and Broberg (2009).

Reports an error in "Similarities and differences between practitioners of psychotherapy in Sweden: A comparison of attitudes between psychodynamic, cognitive, cognitive–behavioral, and integrative therapists" by Billy P. M. Larsson, Viktor Kaldo and Anders G. Broberg (Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 2009[Mar], Vol 19[1], 34-66). The results of the post hoc tests were printed illegibly. In order to make it possible for the reader to understand which of the effect sizes belong to which of the comparisons, the tables are clarified in this erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-03150-003.) This study focuses on similarities and differences between Swedish psychotherapists of four orientations: psychodynamic, cognitive, cognitive–behavioral, and integrative therapy. The aim is to describe similarities and differences regarding (a) background factors, (b) focus in psychotherapy, (c) attitudes toward psychotherapy as art/craftsmanship, (d) scientific outlook, (e) what characterizes a good psychotherapist, and (f) how psychotherapy ought to be pursued. The therapists had very similar attitudes about the therapeutic relationship and rather similar attitudes about which effects psychotherapy ought to obtain. The greatest differences were related to psychotherapeutic techniques and science. The results are discussed with emphasis on the distance or proximity between the orientations. The conclusion is that there are differences between psychodynamic psychotherapy compared with cognitive and cognitive–behavioral therapies, which imply difficulties in integrating these orientations. However, the differences between the cognitive and cognitive–behavioral therapists are not of such a magnitude that they necessarily present an obstacle to integration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group psychotherapy with incarcerated offenders: A research synthesis.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of group psychotherapy with incarcerated offenders. Meta-analytic techniques were applied to 26 empirical studies that used a treatment group versus a control group. The outcome measures assessed in this study included institutional adjustment, anger, anxiety, depression, interpersonal relations, locus of control, and self-esteem. The results indicate that positive treatment effects were found for the use of group psychotherapy with incarcerated offenders across all outcomes. Supplemental analyses were also included to identify factors that contribute to the efficacy of group psychotherapy and indicate that the use of homework exercises resulted in significantly improved outcomes. Furthermore, participants mandated to treatment did not negatively influence the efficacy of group psychotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinician interventions related to alliance during the initial interview and psychological assessment.

The present review is a comprehensive examination of therapist interventions and characteristics that have been found to positively influence the therapeutic alliance during the psychological assessment or initial interview. A major purpose of this review is to link empirically defined interventions found in the research literature to applied clinical practice so that clinicians from a broad range of perspectives can use these techniques to potentially improve their working relationships with clients during the assessment process. Specific therapist activities and attitudes highlighted by contemporary psychotherapy research are discussed and summarized. A general outline for organizing a pretherapy assessment based on the findings of this review is also provided. In addition, the research reviewed provides no compelling evidence to suggest that different practitioners should conduct the assessment and psychotherapy. Finally, there is some limited evidence to suggest that training initiatives may be helpful with regard to increasing a therapist's abilities to strengthen the alliance, and further research in this area is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of computers on professional practice: A survey of current practices and attitudes.

Surveyed 227 practicing psychologists to explore the impact of computers on the everyday practice of psychology and practitioners' attitudes toward specific uses of computers. Whereas more than half of the respondents reported using computers in their practices, most restricted their use to clerical applications. Few practitioners used their computer for more clinical applications. Reasons most frequently reported for not using computers related to lacking the necessary skills and experience and to financial considerations. Overall, practitioners had positive attitudes toward a variety of specific applications of computers. Implications of these findings for facilitating the appropriate use of computers by practitioners are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The use of between-session (homework) activities in psychotherapy: Conclusions from the Journal of Psychotherapy.

This article summarizes the special series. It notes both diversity and commonalities in approaches and highlights areas for future research. Conclusions include the fact that the use of homework appears to be increasingly widespread across a range of therapeutic approaches. However, more research is necessary to document features of homework that will assist practitioners from both a common factors model as well as within a specific approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Handbook of experiential psychotherapy.

Reviews the book, Handbook of experiential psychotherapy edited by Leslie S. Greenberg, Jeanne C. Watson, and Germain Lietaer (1998). The editors note in their introductory comment that the "influence of the humanistic approaches to psychotherapy has waned since their prominence in the sixties and seventies" (p. ix). What this book makes eminently clear, however, is that experientially oriented therapies have not disappeared in the shadow of more recent developments in theory and practice. This book is well written, well organized, and rich in content. Furthermore, it fills an important gap in the literature. In a climate dominated by the search for "scientifically validated treatments," for-profit mental service providers, and praxis dominated by issues of efficacy, concern for the fundamental underlying process responsible for positive human change tends to be relegated to the background. This volume not only highlights the contributions experiential/third-force psychotherapy has made and continues to make to our appreciation of these fundamental processes, but also manages to combine and balance interesting theoretical discussion with clinically useful practical material. While this volume is no "cookbook of experiential therapy," the authors respect the practical demands facing practitioners and provide useful examples of applying some of the basic tenets of the "third force" to a range of specific issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Incorporating a Sustainability Module into First-Year Courses for Civil and Environmental Engineering Students

As articulated in the Bodies of Knowledge for Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering, all civil and environmental engineering students should be introduced to the concept of sustainability. A sustainability module was added into two required first-year, 1-credit introductory courses, one for civil engineering and one for environmental engineering. Data from approximately 150 students were collected. Student attitudes about sustainability were evaluated using a written survey. There was greater initial knowledge of sustainability and positive attitudes toward sustainability among students enrolled in the environmental engineering course compared with those in the civil engineering course, but this did not translate into better performance on the related homework assignment. There was strong evidence that the inclusion of the sustainability module encouraged the students to consider sustainability in subsequent course assignments, even when not explicitly prompted to do so. This indicates that early emphasis of sustainability may affect the students’ concepts of its importance in civil and environmental engineering.     

The effectiveness and relative importance of choice in the classroom.

This investigation examined the effects of providing choices among homework assignments on motivation and subsequent academic performance. Students were randomly assigned within classrooms either to receive a choice of homework options or to be assigned an option for all homework in one instructional unit. Conditions were reversed for a second instructional unit. Results revealed that when students received a choice of homework they reported higher intrinsic motivation to do homework, felt more competent regarding the homework, and performed better on the unit test compared with when they did not have a choice. In addition, a trend suggested that having choices enhanced homework completion rates compared with when no choices were given. In a second analysis involving the same students, the importance of perceived provision of choice was examined in the context of student perceptions of their teachers' support for autonomy more broadly defined. Survey data showed that the relationship between perceptions of receiving autonomy support from teachers and intrinsic motivation for schoolwork could be fully accounted for by students' perceptions of receiving choices from their teachers. The limitations and implications of the study for research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Practice Makes Progress? Homework Assignments and Outcome in Treatment of Cocaine Dependence.

The relationship between treatment outcome and the extent to which participants completed homework assignments was evaluated among 60 cocaine-dependent individuals assigned to cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). Homework was assigned in 72% of all sessions and initiated by participants in 48% of the sessions in which it was assigned. Completion of homework was unrelated to participants' baseline characteristics and several indicators of treatment compliance. Participants who completed more homework assignments demonstrated significantly greater increases in the quantity and quality of their coping skills and used significantly less cocaine during treatment and through a 1-year follow-up. These data suggest that the extent to which participants are willing to complete extrasession assignments may be an important mediator of response to CBT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)