Effect of pulsed electric fields on the structure and frying quality of “kumara” sweet potato tubers

The aim of this research was to study the effect of pulsed electric fields (PEF) on the microstructure of “kumara” sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas cv. Owairaka) and its quality after frying. Whole sweet potato tubers were treated at different electric field strengths ranging from 0.3 to 1.2 kV/cm with specific energy levels between 0.5 and 22 kJ/kg. Cell viability was determined using tetrazolium staining to investigate the uniformity of the PEF effect across tubers. Based on the patterns of viable cells it was observed that the effect of PEF was not homogeneous across the tuber. This result was also supported by the pattern of enzymatic browning due to PEF facilitating the reaction of polyphenoloxidase and phenols. PEF treatment resulted in significant softening of the ground tissues, but not on the dermal tissues, as determined by texture analysis. With respect to frying quality, tubers pre-treated with PEF at electric field strength of 1.2 kV/cm and fried at 190 °C had an 18% lower oil content than non-PEF treated samples. The kinetics of browning as a function of frying time could be described by a fractional conversion model. The activation energy (Ea) of the browning rate during frying increased (more temperature sensitive) due to PEF pretreatment at 0.5 kV/cm and 1.2 kV/cm. It implies that PEF pretreatment allows frying the potato chips at lower temperature in order to achieve the same brown colour intensity as the non-PEF treated tubers. This study shows clearly that PEF could reduce the energy required for cutting and frying of kumara.Industrial relevanceThis study provides evidence that the effect of PEF processing on whole kumara tubers is not uniform, demonstrating heterogenous distribution. These findings provide important information for food industry to design appropriate PEF processing conditions for solid materials. More importantly, PEF treatment reduced the energy required for cutting and frying of kumara, and reduced the oil content in the fried kumara chips.     

Effects of ultrasound pretreatments on the kinetics of moisture loss and oil uptake during deep fat frying of sweet potato (Ipomea batatas)

The possibility of ultrasound assisted pretreatments of sweet potato to lower the moisture content and oil uptake during deep fat frying and its effects on the mass transfer rate was investigated. Sweet potato samples prior to frying were immersed in distilled water with ultrasound (UD), osmotic dehydration without ultrasound (OD) and ultrasound assisted osmotic dehydration (UOD). Ultrasound probe having frequency of 28 kHz at 300 W maximum power and time of 30 min was used for the pretreatment. The control (without pretreatment) and the pretreated samples were fried using sunflower oil at temperature of 130, 150 and 170 °C for 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 min. The first order kinetic model was used for the mass transfer rate for moisture loss and oil uptake. The lowest moisture content was found in fried samples pretreated in UOD and OD while the lowest oil uptake was obtained in fried samples pretreated in UD having 65.11 and 71.47% oil reduction at temperature of 150 and 170 °C, respectively, compared to the untreated sample. The k values of all pretreated samples were higher than that of the untreated at 150 and 170 °C. The highest activation energy for moisture loss was found in untreated samples while the lowest activation energy for oil uptake was found in samples pretreated in UOD. The results from this work proved that ultrasound is a good pretreatment that can be used to obtain a low moisture content and oil uptake during deep fat frying of sweet potato.Industrial relevanceUltrasound is a novel technology that is widely used in the food industries because of its numerous advantages over conventional methods. Its application in the frying of foods could also help in the reduction of oil uptake, thus making safe the consumption of fried foods. The information about frying kinetics could also help in the design and optimization of the process in the food industry.     

Preliminary Studies of the Chemical Composition and Sensory Properties of Sweet Potato Starch-Wheat Flour Blend Noodles

Preliminary studies of chemical composition and sensory properties of instant noodles from blends of wheat flour and sweet potato starch were carried out. Sweet potato starch was used to replace wheat flour at 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70%. Proximate, vitamin A, mineral analysis and sensory evaluation were carried out by standard methods. Results showed that the formulated noodles had higher carbohydrate (63.34 – 70.53%), moisture (4.34 – 4.97%) and vitamin A (11.62 – 35.00 mg/100 g) but lower protein (3.36 – 7.89%), fat (16.91 – 25.09%), calcium (0.73 – 0.89%), phosphorus (0.24 – 0.32%), iron (0.10 – 0.27%) and ash content (1.17 – 3.17%) than the commercial noodles from wheat flour. The noodles containing 30% sweet potato starch showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) from commercial noodles (100% wheat flour) in terms of colour, crunchiness, taste and general acceptability, with improved nutrient composition. It is concluded that production and consumption of wheat flour/potato starch blend noodles should be encouraged to increase the calorie and vitamin A intake in the diet, especially for children who are the major consumers of noodles; apart from helping to promote and improve the utilization of sweet potato tubers.     

Acrylamide content and color development in fried potato strips

Acrylamide formation and changes in color of fried potato strips was investigated in relation to frying temperature and three treatments before frying. Potato strips (0.8 × 0.8 × 5 cm) of Bintje variety were fried at 150, 170 and 190 °C until reaching moisture contents of ∼40 g water/100 g (total basis). Prior to frying, potato strips were treated in one of the following ways: (i) immersed in distilled water for 0 min (control), 60 min and 120 min; (ii) blanched in hot water at six different time–temperature combinations (50 °C for 40 and 80 min; 70 °C for 10 and 45 min; 90 °C for 3 and 10 min); (iii) immersed in a citric acid solution of 10 g/L for an hour; (iv) immersed in a sodium pyrophosphate solution of 10 g/L for an hour. Acrylamide content and color was determined in the potato strips after frying. Immersed strips in water for 120 min showed a reduction of acrylamide formation of 33%, 21% and 27% at 150, 170 and 190 °C, respectively, when they were compared against the control. Potato strips blanched at 50 °C for 80 min had the lowest acrylamide content when compared against strips blanched at different conditions and fried at the same temperature (135, 327 and 564 μm acrylamide/kg for 150, 170 and 190 °C, respectively). Potato strip immersion in citric acid solution of 10 g/L reduced much more the acrylamide formation after frying than the strip immersion in sodium pyrophosphate solution of 10 g/L (53% vs. 17%, respectively, average values for the three temperatures tested). Acrylamide formation decreased dramatically as the frying temperature decreased from 190 to 150 °C for all the pre-treatments tested. Color represented by the parameters L* and a* showed high correlations (r² of 0.79 and 0.83, respectively) with French fry acrylamide content.     

Reduction of acrylamide by taurine in aqueous and potato chip model systems

Acrylamide in foods is mainly produced by Maillard reaction. Taurine can participate in the reaction, which has led us to investigate the possibility of reducing acrylamide formation by use of taurine. In an aqueous system, the lower the pH of the solution the greater the inhibition of acrylamide formation within a pH range of 5.0–8.0 was found, and the inhibition of acrylamide formation by taurine was dose-dependent. In a fried potato chip model, prior to frying at 170 °C for 3 min, the potato slices soaked in 0.l% to 2% taurine solution for 30 min showed significant reductions of acrylamide formation; however, these reductions were not dose-dependent. Also, the soaking treatments for 15–60 min significantly reduced acrylamide formation, but the inhibitory effects were not time-dependent. Thus, taurine, when used in a narrow range of reasonably low levels, is a candidate to inhibit acrylamide formation during frying process.     

Evaluation of Water-soluble Vitamins and Optimum Cooking Time of Fresh Edible Portions of Elephant Grass (Pennisetum purpureum L. Schumach) Shoot

Fresh edible inner tender stem (matrix) and base of domesticated elephant grass shoot were evaluated for water-soluble vitamins B₁, B₂, B₃, B₆ and vitamin C. The B-vitamins were determined using high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) technique, while vitamin C was evaluated using 2, 6 dichlorophenolindophenol (DCIP) titration method. The optimum blanching time of the matrix was also determined. Samples were water-blanched from 0 to 16 min at intervals of 2 min. Optimum cooking time was determined to be the time at which vitamin C showed maximum retention after the intervals of blanching. Vitamins B₁, B₂, B₃, B₆ and C concentrations (mg/100 g fresh weight) in the samples were respectively 1.23 mg/100 g, 4.37 mg/100 g, 12.35 mg/100 g, 2.40 mg/100 g and 17.23 mg/100 g in the matrix and 0.86 mg/100 g, 3.72 mg/100 g, 6.40 mg/100 g, 1.59 mg/100 g and 18.30 mg/100 g in the base. The amounts of the B-vitamins in 100 g portion of the samples adequately satisfy the RDAs for the respective B-vitamins for normal healthy adults. The matrix was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the base in vitamins B₁, B₃ and B₆. The matrix showed an optimum blanching time of 10 min. This was considered the optimum cooking time required to avoid significant loss of vitamin C and other heat-labile nutrients in elephant grass matrix.     

Investigation of the formation of (E)-2-butenal in oils and foods during frying

The formation of (E)-2-butenal in oils subjected to temperatures applied in frying as well as in fried foods was evaluated. For this purpose, a sensitive and accurate stable isotope dilution essay was developed and validated using as an internal standard (E)-2-butenal d6 synthesized in the lab. Heating of corn oil, sunflower oil, extra virgin and refined olive oil, ω-3 frying oil and palm oil at 170 °C for a total of 8 h resulted in the formation of (E)-2-butenal at levels between 0.05 and 1 μg g^− 1 and the highest amounts were already formed after 2 h of heating. The highest (E)-2-butenal formation was observed in the oil containing ω-3 unsaturated fatty acids indicating that (E)-2-butenal content is mainly affected by the fatty acid composition. No significant amount of free (E)-2-butenal was detected in fried foods purchased from fast food shops with the exception of one chicken sample and a pork brochette. Further experiments including several foods did not indicate any increase of free (E)-2-butenal content due to frying. It can be suggested that fried foods may not be a significant dietary source of free (E)-2-butenal for humans. However, these results in combination with the available literature indicated that investigation of the contamination of the indoor environment where frying is taking place could be more relevant than the presence of free (E)-2-butenal in oils and foods.     

Recipe calculation of six Iranian Egg-based Dishes (KuKu)

Nutrient content of six Iranian egg- based dishes (KuKu) was estimated by recipe calculation method. Kuku dishes were prepared by mixing vegetables and herbs such as cauliflower, eggplant, green beans, green herbs and leafy vegetables, potatoes, and zucchini with eggs and seasonings through frying both sides over low heat. Proximate composition of 100 g edible part of dishes was: 45.22 - 75.61 g Water, 1.54 - 2.10 g Ash, 4.84 - 6.98 g protein, 12.28 - 37.78 g total fat, 3.83 -17.75 g carbohydrate, 1.3 - 3.82 g dietary fiber, 0.62 - 4.64 g total sugar, and 148.18 - 391.54 Kcal energy. The dishes also contain 307.01 - 463.17 mg sodium, 1.79 - 3.67 g saturated fat, 0.22 -0.81 g trans-fat, and 99.64 - 173.77 mg cholesterol. Cooking yield factors of dishes were between 0.48 and 0.86.     

Antioxidant and Anti-diabetic Properties of Caryota Urens (Kithul) Flour

Starch extracted from pith of Caryota urens L. (Family: Arecaceae) palm is known as “Kithul flour” and is claimed to have health benefits according to folklore and Ayurveda. Antioxidants are believed to possess numerous health benefits. However, as yet, health benefits of C. urens flour have not been scientifically investigated. Antioxidant properties of C. urens flour were tested using different in vitro assays namely, 2,2-azino-bis 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS⁺), ferric reducing antioxidant power, oxygen radical absorbance capacity and ferrous ion chelating assays. Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and Total Flavonoid Content (TFC) were also evaluated. Anti-diabetic properties were estimated using alpha amylase and alpha glucosidase enzyme inhibition assays. Dried methanolic extracts of both boiled and raw samples were used in all assays. Results of the study showed that C. urens flour possess free radical scavenging activity(raw 0.02± 0.01 and boiled 0.04±0.01 mg trolox equivalent (TE)/ g flour), electron donating reducing power (raw 0.10±0.03 and boiled 0.36±0.11 mg TE/g flour), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (raw 2.29± 0.71 and boiled 192.3 ± 57.71 mg TE/1 g flour) and metal ion chelating capacity (raw 0.03±0.01 and boiled 0.14±0.04 mg EDTA equivalents /g flour) exhibiting its antioxidant potential. TPC (raw 1.1±0.3 and boiled 5.12 ± 1.89 mg GAE/g flour) and TFC (raw 1.65 ± 0.47 and boiled 6.69 ± 1.27 μg QE/g flour) which are said to be contributed to antioxidant activities were also found. In addition, boiled flour which is generally consumed as a food has shown higher antioxidant activity. Caryota urens flour did not contain marked anti-diabetic properties. It is evident from results that Caryota urens flour has moderate antioxidant property which may associate with its traditional health claims.     

Heat transfer coefficients during deep fat frying of sweetpotato: Effects of product size and oil temperature

Heat transfer coefficient, h during deep fat frying of sweetpotato was determined from designed experiments. Samples of three different disc sizes were fried at four oil temperatures between 150 and 180 °C. Heat transfer coefficient estimation was based on heat energy balance between the oil and sample during frying. Maximum h was reached at the earlier stage of frying (80–120 s). The range of maximum h reached was 710–850 W/m² °C. h at latter period of frying (200–300 s) was 450–550 W/m² °C. h was found to vary directly with oil temperature but inversely with sample size (p <0.05).     

Effect of green tea extract and microwave pre-cooking on the formation of acrylamide in fried chicken drumsticks and chicken wings

Since 2002, it has been well-known that carbohydrate-rich foods have a high level of acrylamide (AA). Some researchers have drawn attention on the formation of AA in coated and fried chicken meat products in recent years. From this viewpoint, the purpose of the present study was to mitigate acrylamide formation in fried chicken drumsticks (CDs) and chicken wings (CWs) using green tea extract (GTE) alone or combined with microwave pre-cooking (MPC) by decrease frying time. In brief, CDs and CWs marinated for one day were divided into eight groups. Four of those were first covered with batter and breading, including 0%, 0.5%, 1.5% and 3% GTE and deep fried in fat for 8.5 min for CDs and 3.5 min for CWs at 175 °C and 8 psi of pressure. In the second step, the remainder of the marinated CDs and CWs were subjected to MPC for 7 min and 5 min, respectively. Then, they were covered with batter and breading including 0%, 0.5%, 1.5% and 3% GTE and deep fried in fat for 5.5 min for CDs and 2.5 min for CWs at 175 °C and 8 psi for pressure. With increasing levels of GTE, the AA concentration decreased gradually in CDs and CWs. In addition, MPC also decreased AA formation in CWs due to the shorter frying time. Moreover, MPC was more efficient at reducing AA formation in CWs when it was combined with GTE. A lighter and more yellowish color was measured in CDs as a consequence of the shorter frying time. It is crucial to state that the incorporation of GTE into the breading or MPC did not negatively affect the sensory properties of CDs and CWs, while it reduced AA formation. In conclusion, it can be stated that GTE alone or combined with MPC is an effective and practical mitigation strategy for AA formation.     

High pressure processing of cocoyam,Peruvian carrot and sweet potato: Effect on oxidative enzymes and impact in the tuber color

High pressure processing (HPP) is a non-thermal technology used to activate or inactivate enzymes. This study investigated the effects of HPP (600 MPa for 5 or 30 min at 25 °C) on cocoyam, Peruvian carrot and sweet potato color, and the polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) activities in tuber cubes, puree, and enzyme extract subjected to HPP. The results showed enzyme inactivation by HPP in cocoyam (up to 55% PPO inactivation in puree and 81% POD inactivation in extract) and Peruvian carrot (up to 100% PPO and 57% POD inactivation the extract). In contrast, enzyme activation was observed in sweet potato (up to 368% PPO and 27% POD activation in puree). The color results were compatible to enzyme activity: the color parameters remained unchanged in cocoyam and Peruvian carrot, which showed high PPO and POD inactivation after HPP. Furthermore, the impact of HPP on the enzymes was influenced by the matrix in which HPP was carried out, evidencing that the enzyme structure can be protected in the presence of other food constituents.Industrial relevanceThe enzymes PPO and POD are an important concern for vegetable processing, due its ability to induce browning after vegetables are cut. The HPP at 600 MPa for 5 or 30 min can be used to inactivate these enzymes in cocoyam and Peruvian carrot, guaranteeing the color and freshness of the tubers similar to the fresh cut vegetable.     

Effect of boiling and roasting on the polyacetylene and polyphenol content of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) bulb

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare cv dulce.) is a hardy, perennial, umbelliferous (Apiaceae) plant as a source of the secondary metabolites group's polyacetylenes and polyphenols.The present study investigated the effect of boiling (100 ° C for 30 min) and roasting (160 °C for 15 min) on the levels of these phytochemicals. Boiling resulted in a significant decrease in the levels of polyacetylenes (falcarinol, falcarindiol, falcarindiol- 3- acetate) and polyphenols (caffeic acid, gallic acid, apigenin-7-o-glucoside, ferulic acid, syringic acid, isovitexin, phloridzin). The loss of polyphenols from the boiled bulbs may be in part due to leaching of these components in the water. Roasting resulted in a significant decrease in falcarindiol, falcarindiol-3-acetate, and falcarinol by 81%, 78%, and 66% when compared to raw unprocessed fennel bulbs. In general, levels of all polyphenols decreased in roasted samples. The exceptions were ferulic acid which showed an increase and gallic acid which did not show any decrease. In line with results for polyphenol levels, antioxidant activity decreased following thermal processing, and the presence of hydroxymethylfurfural was confirmed in roasted samples of fennel.     

Effect of Fermentation Time on the Phenolic,Flavonoid and Vitamin C Contents and Antioxidant Activities of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Seeds

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of fermentation on the phenolic, vitamin C and total flavonoid contents and antioxidant properties of okra seed. The okra seeds were removed from the pod of matured and fibrous okra that cannot be easily cut with kitchen knife, and was allowed to undergo chance fermentation for 120 h. Samples were taken for antioxidant analysis at 24 h, 72 h and 120 h, respectively. The aqueous extracts of fermented and unfermented okra seeds were obtained and subsequently used for the analysis. The phenolic, vitamin C and total flavonoid contents and the antioxidant properties (ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 1, 1-diphenyl-2 picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical-scavenging ability) of the extracts were determined. The results revealed that fermented okra seeds had significantly (p < 0.05) higher phenolic content, vitamin C, total flavonoid and non-flavonoid contents and showed greater antioxidant activities than unfermented okra seed. Okra seeds fermented for 24 h exhibited the highest ferric reducing antioxidant power of 980 mgAAE/100 g and the least IC₅₀ of 2.27 mg/ ml for DPPH free radical-scavenging ability than the others. Okra seeds fermented for 24 hours had significantly (p < 0.05) higher antioxidant activities. The product from fermented okra seeds could be used for the production of functional foods.     

Histamine accumulation and histamine-forming bacteria in Indian anchovy (Stolephorus indicus)

Accumulation of histamine, trimethylamine (TMA), and total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), as well as microbial population incidence in Indian anchovy (Stolephorus indicus) during storage in ice and at 15 and 35 °C were investigated. Histamine was as low as 1.9 mg/100 g in 15 days at ice storage, but it increased to 19.0 mg/100 g after 32 h at 15 °C. Histamine rapidly increased to 25.4 mg/100 g when stored at 35 °C for 8 h. TVB-N and TMA began to sharply increase after 11 days in ice storage, but abruptly increased after 16 and 8 h of storage at 15 and 35 °C, respectively. A high number of Enterobacteriaceae (10¹⁰–10¹¹ cfu/g) was detected and shown to be the dominant group of microbial flora during spoilage of Indian anchovy at both 15 and 35 °C. A total of 153 bacterial strains were selected from the prescreening step using various selective media. Only 75.8% of these selected isolates showed a positive reaction in Niven's differential medium, and 27.6% of the positive isolates were true histamine formers when confirmed by the enzymatic method. Prolific histamine formers were identified as Morganella morganii, Proteus vulgaris, and Enterobacter aerogenes, and produced high histamine content of 104.1–203.0 mg/100 ml. Optimum growth and histamine production of selected strains of these three species was at 35 °C in histamine evaluation broth (HEB) containing 0.5% NaCl, pH 5. E. aerogenes produced the highest histamine of 500 mg/100 ml at the optimum condition. All studied strains did not produce histamine at ⩾10% NaCl.     

Effects of Processing on the Nutrient Composition of False Yam (Icacina trichantha) Flour

False yam (Icacina trichantha) tubers were processed into different flour samples: the raw; steeped-sun-dried; steeped- oven-dried; blanched-sun-dried and blanched-oven-dried samples. The nutrient composition: proximate and mineral elements contents of the flour samples were studied. The lipid, protein and carbohydrate contents of the samples ranged between 1.77 to 5.76%, 3.01 to 60.3% and 85.56 to 93.31% respectively, while the energy values ranged between 394.27 to 412.46 Kcal. Concentration of potassium, sodium, calcium and iron (among others) ranged between 20.835 and 31.51 mg/l, 2.409 and 18.890 mg/l, 90.250 and 112.550 mg/l to 0.777 and 2.840 mg/l respectively. False yam tuber, apart from being a good source of energy for man, is rich in mineral elements (potassium, sodium and calcium).Processing affected the levels of nutrients, in the flour samples.     

Vitamin A stability in triple fortified salt

A triple fortified salt (TFS) containing vitamin A, iron and iodine was produced and studied under two controlled climatic conditions: 40 °C, 60% and 100% relative humidity (RH) for three months. The stability of commercially available vitamin A products and the effect of different iron and iodine compounds on vitamin A stability were investigated. The highest vitamin A stability was observed in premixes made with vitamin A palmitates stabilized in a solid matrix. Our best TFS formulation retained 65 ± 2% of vitamin at 60% RH. The highest retention at 100% RH was 45 ± 1%. The TFS containing vitamin A acetate retained a maximum of 48 ± 5% at 60% RH. Introduction of all three micronutrients into one premix particle resulted in reduced vitamin A retention to ∼10% at 60% RH. Vitamin A was more stable with ferric sodium EDTA than with any other iron compound. The source of iodine did not significantly affect vitamin A retention.     

Study of the hard-to-cook property of stored yam tubers (Dioscorea dumetorum) and some determining biochemical factors

In an attempt to investigate the hard-to-cook phenomenon in Dioscorea dumetorum tubers during storage, selected physical and chemical characteristics were monitored. A 3 × 5 factorial experiment with storage conditions (15 °C, 59% RH; 30 °C, 75% RH; 45 °C, 86% RH) and storage period (0, 2, 4, 7 and 14 days) as variables was carried out. Changes in cooked hardness, water absorption, water-holding capacity and solid loss of steeped tubers as well as phytate, total phenols and lignin contents were monitored. Water uptake and solid loss of steeped tubers decreased significantly (P ⩽ 0.05) with storage period, suggesting that storage affects cell wall membrane permeability of the tubers. Cooked hardness analyses indicated significant difference (P ⩽ 0.05) between fresh and stored tubers and its rate varied with storage time and storage conditions. Cooked hardness values correlated negatively (r = −0.922–0.857, P ⩽ 0.05, d.f. = 146) with phytate and total phenols. A multiple mechanism for D. dumetorum tubers hardening is presented which includes phytate loss as a minimal contributor to cooked hardness during the first days of storage and total phenol loss via a lignification-like mechanism as a major contributor.     

Quality Evaluation of Maize Chips (Kokoro) Fortified with Cowpea Flour

Quality evaluation of “kokoro” fortified with cowpea flour (0, 10, 20, 30, and 40 %) was studied. The blends were reconstituted into a thick paste, manually moulded into kokoro stick and deep fried in hot vegetable oil at about 170°C for 5 minutes. These flour blends were analyzed for pasting, proximate and functional properties. The result showed that there was significant difference (p < 0.05) in the proximate composition in all the bends. The protein content ranged from 15.20 – 23.03% while ash content was between 1.29 – 1.90%, which increased with increase in cowpea flour. The carbohydrate, fat and fiber contents decreased with values ranging from 59.17 – 65.00%, 3.24 – 4.40% and 2.23 – 2.96%, respectively. The pasting characteristics of the maize cowpea blends gave a peak viscosity ranging from 510 – 702 cp. There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the pasting time and temperature. The functional properties reflected that water absorption, oil absorption and foaming capacity significantly increased with increase in cowpea flour with their values ranging from 186.67 – 210.00 g/100 g, 163.33 – 195.00 g/mg and 30.73 – 39.27% respectively. Bulk density also followed the same trend. Sample CAF (100% maize) reflected the highest dispersibility value (6.63%). No significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed in the swelling capacity and least gelatinization concentration. Although the sensory result indicated that increase in cowpea flour does not show a significant difference (p > 0.05) in the sensory parameters, the overall acceptability of the samples was highly rated.     

Physical,Sensorial and Chemical Characteristics of Simulated Chips of Cassava (Manihot Esculenta Crantz): Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) Mix

Cassava-rice ratio and cooking time-temperature combinations in baked and fried simulated chips making enriched with carrot, celery, curry leaves and skim milk were studied using completely randomized design. Research found that interaction between mix formula and cooking methods was significantly affected (p<0.05) the physical, sensorial and chemical characteristic of the simulated chips. The best baked simulated cassava-rice simulated chips was resulted from 80:20 ratio, baked at 140 °C for 14 minutes, and the fried cassava-rice simulated chips with 60:40 ratio fried at 150 °C for 2.5 minutes. The fried chips have finer microstructure and more preferable than the baked one. However, both best chips were potential to be further developed.