Color and Bind Strength of Restructured Pork Chops: Effect of Calcium Carbonate and Sodium Alginate Concentration

The effects of calcium carbonate concentration (0.00-0.26%) and sodium alginate concentration (0.0-1.4%) on the amount of discoloration and the raw- and cooked bind-strength of restructured pork chops were investigated. Alginate slightly increased and calcium carbonate decreased the amount of discoloration in the restructured chops. The beneficial effect calcium carbonate had on discoloration did not appear to be due to increased pH. Restructured chops prepared with alginate were more discolored (P<0.05) than restructured chops prepared with salt and phosphate. The optimum concentration of calcium carbonate and alginate required for minimum discoloration and maximum raw-and cooked bind-strength was 0.13% and 0.7%, respectively.     

Color and Its Stability in Restructured Beef Steaks during Frozen Storage: Effects of Various Binders

Color and its stability were evaluated in restructured steaks made with various binders (calcium alginate, crude myosin extract, whey protein concentrate, wheat gluten, soy isolate or surimi) vs controls (intact ribeye muscle, restructured steaks with no additives or with NaCl and sodium tripolyphosphate). Steaks made with various binders showed similar effects on initial surface metmyoglobin concentration and sensory color attributes, except steaks made with calcium alginate or soy isolate protein. During 12-wk frozen storage, steaks made with various binders (except soy protein isolate) had similar color stabilities.     

The effect of calcium carbonate and sodium alginate on the color and bind strength of restructured beef steaks

This study investigated the effect of calcium carbonate concentration (0·00-0·26%) and sodium alginate concentration (0·0-1·4%) on the amount of discoloration and the raw and cooked bind-strength of restructured beef steaks. Alginate slightly increased and calcium carbonate markedly decreased the amount of discoloration in the restructured steaks. The protective effect of the calcium carbonate did not increase with increasing concentration and did not appear to be due to increased pH. The amount of discoloration in restructured steaks prepared with alginate was similar to that in conventionally prepared restructured steaks. The optimum concentration of calcium carbonate and alginate required for minimum discoloration and maximum raw and cooked bind-strength was 0·13% and 0·7%, respectively.     

Use of calcium lactate with salt-phosphate and alginate-calcium gels in restructured pork rolls

The study was carried out to evaluate restructured pork rolls (RPR) prepared by using salt-phosphate and alginate-calcium gels with or without calcium lactate. Five types of RPR were prepared with: (1) 1.75% sodium chloride+0.3 phosphate (SP); (2) 1.75% sodium chloride+0.3% phosphate+0.3% calcium lactate (SPL); (3) 0.7% sodium alginate+0.125% calcium carbonate (AC); (4) 0.7% sodium alginate+0.3% calcium lactate (AL); and (5) 0.7% sodium alginate+0.125% calcium carbonate+0.3% calcium lactate (ACL). Cooking yield and cooked binding strength were significantly (P<0.05) higher in RPR containing salt and phosphate whereas pH and raw binding strength were significantly (P<0.05) higher in RPR containing alginate and calcium. Texture profile analysis indicated significantly (P<0.05) higher firmness and cohesiveness in RPR containing SPL and ACL. Sensory scores were significantly (P<0.05) higher in SP, SPL and ACL than AC and AL treatments. Results of storage studies indicated significant (P<0.05) increases in pH, TBARS numbers, metmyoglobin and microbial counts with storage in all the treatments. The results suggest that quality characteristics of raw product were better when RPR were prepared with alginate-calcium whereas quality characteristics of cooked product were better when rolls were prepared with salt-phosphate. Further, addition of calcium lactate improved sensory characteristics and shelf life of both alginate-calcium and salt-phosphate restructured pork rolls.     

RESTRUCTURED PORK CHOPS WITH ADDED TURKEY THIGHS

Raw materials from the shoulders of U.S. No. 1 pork carcasses boned at 24 h postmortem and frozen boneless turkey thighs stored for approximately 120h were flaked and incorporated in four formulations for restructured chops each containing 1.0% NaCl and 0.25% sodium tripolyphospahte (STP). Formulations included pork (P), pork plus 0.5% sugar (PS), 50% pork and 50% turkey (PT) and 50% pork and 50% turkey plus 0.5% sugar (PTS). At 0, 21 and 84 days, subjective evaluations were conducted for discoloration, cohesiveness, muscle cut resemblance and overall appearance. Objective measurements included Hunter Color and TBA values. Turkey and sugar had a minimal effect on appearance traits, texture and juiciness and no significant effect on tenderness and flavor regardless of storage time. Results suggested that turkey dark muscle can replace pork with minimal effects on appearance, taste and oxidative rancidity.     

Shelf-life of Algin/Calcium Restructured Turkey Products Held under Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions

The shelf-life of restructured products made with ground turkey or turkey breast pieces and formulated with combinations of 0.5–1.0% sodium alginate, 0.1–0.2% calcium carbonate and 0.15–0.30% lactate (ACL) was compared to product containing a combination of 1.4% NaCl and 0.32% sodium tripolyphosphate and to no-additive controls stored at 4°C under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. No significant (p > 0.05) differences were observed between ACL and salt/phosphate restructured turkey products in the rate and extent of growth of psychrotrophs or lactic acid bacteria. The salt/phosphate combination, however, repressed (p<0.05) the growth of pseudomonads. Overall, inclusion of ACL did not influence spoilage of restructured turkey meat products held under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.     

HIGH MANNURONATE ALGINATES AS BINDERS IN RESTRUCTURED BEEF

Three high mannuronate alginate types (Sobalg Fd 155, 176, and 275) were evaluated as binders in finely ground restructured beef (M. semitendinosus). Formulations with alginate levels (0.50%–1.25%) and calcium carbonate levels (0.10%–0.25%) were prepared, including the acidulant glucono-delta-lactone (0.80%). In addition, Sobalg Fd 176 was evaluated in a coarsely ground restructured product using the same raw materials and ingredient levels.
Among alginate types, the relatively high viscosity graded alginate, Sobalg Fd 176, resulted in the highest raw breaking strengths and lowest cooking loss (P < 0.05). When averaged across alginate types, increased raw breaking strengths were observed when the level of alginate was elevated, providing the calcium carbonate level was ≤ 0.15%. In the coarsely ground product using Sobalg Fd 176, cooked tensile strength ranged from 11.6 N to 17.9 N, corresponding to a satisfactory bind. In both finely and coarsely ground restructured samples, cooking loss was reduced when alginate levels were elevated, and pH increased as a function of calcium carbonate level (P < 0.05). This study demonstrates, that high mannuronate alginates, especially Sobalg Fd 176, can be used as binders in restructured beef products.     

TEXTURAL PROPERTIES AND COLOR CHARACTERISTICS OF RESTRUCTURED BEEF STEAKS WITH SELECTED BINDERS AND NOMEAT ADJUNCTS

Restructured steaks were evaluated using subjective and objective texture and color analyses. Treatments included: intact muscle, restructured steaks with no additives, salt/sodium tripolyphosphate (NaCl/STP), calcium alginate, crude myosin extract (CME) with 0.1% Nad and 0.4% STP [low salt & phosphate (LSP)], CME with 1.0 NaCl and 0.4% STP [high salt & phosphate (HSP)], surimi LSP and surimi HSP. Restructured steaks made from CME (HSP) or surimi (HSP) exhibited superior (P < 0.05) sensory textural evaluation, tensile strength values, cooking loss properties, color and color stability (subjective and objective) when compared to other restructured steaks except CME (LSP) and NaCl/STP (in some parameters). Restructured steaks made with CME or surimi in combination with 1% NaCl and 0.4% STP improved or maintained textural properties as well as color and color stability of restructured steaks.     

Color and Color Stability of Frozen Restructured Beef Steaks: Effect of Sodium Chloride, Tripolyphosphate, Nitrogen Atmosphere, and Processing Procedures

This study investigated the effect of mixing and grinding, tempering, addition of sodium chloride and sodium tripolyphosphate and processing under a nitrogen atmosphere on the color of restructured beef steaks initially and at 1-month intervals for 3 months of frozen storage. Mixing and grinding and manufacture under a nitrogen atmosphere had the greatest detrimental effect on the extent of discoloration initially; this was probably due to low oxygen concentration. Tempering and the addition of sodium chloride without sodium tripolyphosphate produced the most rapid increase in rate of discoloration during frozen storage. Tripolyphosphate partially counteracted the detrimental effect of sodium chloride, however, this effect did not appear to be due to the higher pH produced by the phosphate or the chelating ability of the phosphate. Surface discoloration and overall color were highly correlated with surface metmyoglobin (r= -0.87) and overall met-myoglobin (r= -0.94).     

Quality Characteristics of Restructured Turkey Meat with Variable Alginate/Calcium-Lactate Ratios

Restructured ground turkey and turkey breast meat patties, formulated with combinations of 0–1.0% sodium alginate, 0–0.1875% calcium carbonate and 0–0.6% lactate, were compared to a no additive control. The ratio of sodium alginate to calcium carbonate was held constant at 5.3 to 1. Optimal sensory and instrumental raw and cooked product bind was achieved with combinations of 0.4–1.0% sodium alginate, 0.0750–0.1875% calcium carbonate and 0.6% lactate. All restructured products with the algin/calcium binder had higher (p<0.05) cook yields than the no additive control. Sensory aroma, flavor and juiciness of cooked products were not different (p>0.05) between treatments.     

FLAVOR ADJUNCTS FOR RESTRUCTURED PORK

Boneless prerigor pork shoulders were processed to restructured pork chops and formulated with 1% NaCl and .25% sodium tripolyphosphate (STP). Formulations included (1) 100% pork (C), (2) 95% pork - 5% rehydrated dried apples (A), (3) 95% pork - 5 % mushroom slurry (M), and (4) 99.98% pork -.02% liquid smoke extract (S). All samples were stored at -20°C until evaluation at 0, 14 and 42 days after packaging. Although the C chops received higher initial color scores, color of the A samples remained more stable during storage. The Hunter ‘a’ values followed a similar trend. Flavor enhancers and storage times that were evaluated had a minimal effect on product cohesiveness and tenderness. Rehydrated dried apples and the mushroom slurry appeared to be potential flavor enhancers; whereas, liquid smoke appeared to be a flavor protector by retarding oxidative rancidity development after frozen storage for 42 days.     

RESTRUCTURED BEEF AND TURKEY STEAKS

Raw Materials from U.S. Choice beef chucks boned 24 h postmortem and frozen boneless turkey thighs stored approximately 120 h were flaked and incorporated in four restructured formulations with each containing 1.0% NaCl and 0.25% sodium tripolyphosphate (STP). Formulations included beef (B), beef plus 0.5% sugar (BS), 50% turkey (BT) and 50% beef and 50% turkey plus 0.5% sugar (BTS). At 0, 21 and 84 day, subjective evaluations were conducted for discoloration, cohesiveness, muscle cut resemblance and overall appearance. Objective measurements included Hunter Color and TBA values. Overall appearance and discoloration (measured visually and objectively) were affected more by storage time than by raw materials and flavor adjuncts. The effect of raw materials and sugar on the sensory attributes was minimal except that the formulations containing turkey had higher TBA values.     

EFFECTS OF ADJUNCTS ON RESTRUCTURED PORK

Boneless pork shoulders were excised 24h postmortem, frozen, tempered, flaked and blended with one of the four formulations: (1) 1% NaCl and .25% sodium tripolyphosphate (STP); (2) .5% NaCl, .5% KCl and .25% STP; (3) 1% NaCl, .25% STP and .125% lecithin; or (4) .5% NaCl, .5% KCl, .25% STP and .125% lecithin. The blended samples were converted to restructured chops and stored at - 18C until evaluated at 5, 14 and 56 days. Appearance and taste attributes were measured objectively and subjectively. Objective and subjective measurements of color and other visual traits revealed that storage time affected these traits more than the adjuncts; whereas, all treatments had a minimal effect on texture and juiciness. Increased frozen storage time and lecithin contributed to flavor degradation and increased TBA values. Further research is needed to determine the effect of varying amounts of lecithin on oxidative rancidity of restructured muscle foods.     

EFFECT OF A KAPPA CARRAGEENAN/LOCUST BEAN GUM MIXTURE ON BIND AND COOKING LOSS IN HIGH MANNURONATE ALGINATE RESTRUCTURED BEEF

Raw and cooked bind properties, cooking loss and pH were evaluated when adding three levels (0%, 0.25%, 0.50%) of a kappa carrageenan and locust bean gum mixture (C/LBG) to finely and coarsely ground high mannuronate alginate restructured beef. Treatments included variable levels of the following dry additives: Alginate (0.50%-1.00%), calcium carbonate (0.10%-0.20%) and glucono-delta-lactone (GDL, 0%-0.80%). Raw breaking strength of finely ground formulations was increased by elevated alginate levels (P<0.05), but was not affected by C/LBG addition (P>0.05). The effect of alginate and C/LBG on cooked bind properties depended on whether finely or coarsely ground meat was used. Sensory evaluations of coarsely ground treatments suggest that sufficient raw and cooked bind was achieved using 0.50% alginate, 0.10% calcium carbonate and 0.60% GDL. Addition of 0.50% C/LBG and/or 0.75% alginate to coarsely ground formulations further reduced cooking loss (P<0.05) by relatively 13% and 17%, respectively. No interaction between C/LBG and alginate was found (P>0.05).     

OPTIMIZATION OF ALGIN/CALCIUM BINDER IN RESTRUCTURED BEEF

Optimal use of ingredients can affect both the functionality and economics of meat products. The effects of 0–0.8% sodium alginate (algin), 0–0.15% calcium carbonate, 0–1.2% encapsulated lactic acid, 0–0.18% dry lactic acid, 0–0.12% calcium lactate and 0–0.3% palm oil on raw and cooked bind, discoloration, flavor, mouthfeel, aroma, cook yield and pH of restructured beef were studied. A formulation of 0.4% algin, 0.075% calcium carbonate and 0.6% lactate was optimal based on product characteristics and quantity of ingredients added. Inferior products resulted from the use of individual components of commercial lactate or the exclusion of calcium carbonate from the formulation.     

Effects of Various Phosphates on the Palatability, Appearance and Storage Traits of Flaked and Formed Restructured Beef Steaks

Seven blends (9.1 kg raw meat) were formulated with 0.75% NaCl and 0.25% or 0.5% sodium tripolyphosphate (STP), sodium hexa-metaphosphate (SHMP) or sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP). Steaks from all blends were “slightly” to “moderately” desirable in flavor and overall satisfaction scores. Steaks made with STP had higher shear force values and work required to shear values than all other restructured steaks indicating an increase in binding occurred with added STP. Restructured steaks formulated with 0.5% STP or SHMP had more desirable raw color scores than the control or steaks made with SAPP. Storage life of all phosphate added restructured steaks was past 90 days frozen storage, and steaks containing STP had thiobarbituric acid values below 1.0 at 120 days storage.     

Effects of Connective Tissue on Algin Restructured Beef

Different levels of connective tissues were examined in algin/calcium gel restructured beef tenderloin, riblifter and foreshank products. Foreshank meat, which contained a high level of collagen (4.83%), formulated with algin/calcium gel ingredients, exhibited relatively strong bind in the raw and cooked state. Addition of 5–10% undenatured or 5% denatured connective tissue to algin/calcium restructured riblifter meat resulted in products of acceptable bind and sensory quality. However, beef riblifter formulations containing 10% added denatured connective tissue had greater (P<0.05) discoloration and lower (p<0.05) bind than the other added connective tissue plus algin/calcium treatments. Algin/calcium binder improves quality of restructured meat formulated with increased concentrations of connective tissue.     

Color and Color Stability of Frozen Restructured Beef Steaks: Effect of Processing Under Gas Atmospheres with Differing Oxygen Concentration

Restructured beef steaks were manufactured under gas atmospheres with differing oxygen concentration and subsequently vacuum-packaged. The effect of the different gas atmospheres on the color and color stability of frozen restructured beef steaks initially and at 1-month intervals for three months was investigated. Overall metmyoglobin concentrations for restructured beef steaks were not different (P > 0.05) from that of the intact steaks either initially or over storage time. The rates of overall metmyoglobin formation increased when oxygen concentration of the gas atmosphere was increased. Restructured steaks manufactured using pure carbon dioxide gas had the least amount of overall discoloration both initially and over storage time.     

SODIUM LACTATE EFFECTS ON THE STABILITY OF FRESH AND CURED PORK LONGISSIMUS

Boneless pork loins sliced into 1.9 cm fresh chops were dipped to retain 0, 1.5 or 3% sodium lactate (SL) and packaged in polyvinylchloride (PVC) or vacuum-packaged (VP), Color of fresh chops was monitored visually and objectively. Boneless pork loins were cured by injection with 0, 1.5 or 3% SL, or were dipped after slicing to retain 0, 1.5 or 3% SL. Cure for the dipped loins contained no SL. Color and aerobic plate count (APC) of vacuum-packaged chops were evaluated over 70 days of retail storage (4C). Visual color was darker (P < 0.05) and L* values were lower (P < 0.05) for 3% SL-dipped fresh chops. Fresh chops containing 1.5 and 3% SL had higher a* values than controls. Surface discoloration of 3% SL fresh chops was lower (P < 0.05) than control chops. Cured injected chops (3% SL) had lower (P < 0.05) L* values than dipped chops or injected controls. L*, a* and b* values of cured dipped chops (3% SL) were not different (P > 0.05) from controls. No consistent trends were found in APC of cured chops. Injection of SL prior to cooking darkened the color of cured pork loin chops.     

Effect of Antioxidants on Lipid Stability in Restructured Beef Steaks

Two natural antioxidant formulations–containing mixed tocopherols, ascorbyl palmitate and citric acid–and TBHQ were evaluated in restructured beef steaks formulated to contain 18% fat and 0.75% NaCl. Lipid oxidation was monitored over 12 months of frozen storage. TBHQ significantly (p < 0.05) lowered TBA numbers in raw and freshly cooked samples and in samples that were cooked and held 4 hr at 4°C. Natural antioxidants provided significant (p <0.05) protection in freshly cooked meat and were as effective as TBHQ in retarding lipid oxidation. Sensory evaluation and GC quantitation of hexanal were also used to monitor oxidation but the correlation between the three methods was not significant.