残余应力测定的基本知识——第六讲残余应力与环境敏感开裂

残余应力(σR)是环境敏感开裂(ESC)的三个重要因素之一。无论是应力腐蚀开裂(SCC)、氢致开裂(HIC),或者是腐蚀疲劳开裂(CFC),都存在一个开裂的阈值或条件阈值(SσCC,KISCC,σHIC,KIHIC或-σ1CF,ΔKth)。而σR可以单独存在,也可以与工作应力(σW)组合导致ESC。叙述了残余应力与环境敏感断裂的关系和实例,提出了残余应力测定对确保工程部件的安全运行及正确寿命评估的必要性和重要性。     

不锈钢A-TIG的抗腐蚀性能探讨

本文以该不锈钢输水管道的焊接为研究背景,用A—TIG焊接提高焊缝质量和生产效率,深入了解焊接后接头处残余应力应变的分布规律,对304不锈钢的抗应力腐蚀开裂开裂能力进行评估,并研究残余应力与应力腐蚀之间的关系。本研究完成后,必将对现有的生产过程起到很好的指导作用,具有较好的实用价值和经济效益。     

甲酸钠尾气吸收塔失效分析

采用扫描电镜观察、力学性能检测、化学成分分析和残余应力测定等方法系统分析了甲酸钠尾气吸收塔发生泄漏的原因。结果表明：泄漏部位的腐蚀产物含有钠、氯等元素,同时泄漏部位存在残余应力偏高问题,在不断遭受腐蚀和工作应力的共同作用下产生应力腐蚀开裂,最终导致设备的失效。     

弹壳开裂失效分析

对某型H68黄铜弹壳进行检查时发现大量弹壳存在裂纹。通过对弹壳进行宏观和微观观察、能谱分析、金相检验和残余应力测定等,分析了弹壳开裂的原因。结果表明:弹壳的开裂性质为应力腐蚀开裂,其原因是由于收口位置存在一定的残余拉应力,且该位置的晶粒尺寸较大,在外界介质的协同作用下产生了应力腐蚀裂纹。     

染缸热交换器焊缝开裂原因分析

某纺织公司染缸热交换器在检修过程中发现焊缝及筒体附近母材出现裂纹。通过宏观分析、化学成分分析、硬度测试、金相检验和氯离子检测等方法对热交换器焊缝开裂的原因进行了分析。结果表明:该热交换器焊缝及筒体附近母材的开裂模式为应力腐蚀开裂。由于蒸汽冷凝水中氯离子质量浓度过高,在焊接残余应力和工作应力的共同作用下,焊缝发生应力腐蚀开裂。     

304不锈钢低温分离器开裂原因分析

采用残余应力检测、常规力学性能试验以及金相分析等方法对304不锈钢低温分离器的封头开裂原因进行分析。结果表明,开裂是由应力腐蚀引起的;其原因是工作介质中有含量较高的硫,而封头一筒体对接环焊缝区域存在的残余应力促使开裂的发生。     

316L奥氏体不锈钢碱液储罐开裂原因

某核电站316L奥氏体不锈钢碱液储罐发生了泄漏,采用宏观观察、化学成分分析、金相检验、硬度测试及残余应力分析等方法对该储罐开裂原因进行了分析。结果表明：储罐内壁焊缝两侧出现与焊缝平行的环向裂纹和垂直的轴向裂纹,前者主要受焊接残余拉应力作用,后者主要受冷加工残余拉应力作用,两类裂纹均为碱致应力腐蚀开裂。     

磁屏表面裂纹分析

本文对磁屏外表面的轴向开裂进行了分析。结果表明，该表面开裂为应力腐蚀开裂。其原因是磁屏表面存在较大的切向拉应力，从而在酸洗过程中产生了应力腐蚀开裂。对冲压后的磁屏采用消除应力退火，随后再酸洗，未发生表面轴向开裂。     

H68黄铜管夹开裂分析

H68黄铜管夹安装数月后出现开裂。对开裂的管夹进行了化学成分、力学性能、断口及金相组织的检验与分析。结果表明，由于管夹成形时存在的残余应力和成形模具的设计问题而造成的装配应力，再加上和 在露天放置受到的环境腐蚀，导致管夹在同一外侧呈现应力腐蚀开裂特片。提出了改进措施，并取得了满意的效果。     

0Cr17Ni4Cu4Nb钢锻件延迟断裂失效分析

通过化学分析、力学性能检测、表面残余应力检测、金相检验和断口分析的方法,分析了0Cr17Ni4Cu4Nb钢锻件开裂的原因,结果显示,该锻件的开裂是由于回火不足引起的应力腐蚀开裂。     

腐蚀环境下2024-T3铝合金疲劳裂纹扩展和剩余强度实验研究

对2024-T3铝合金在5种典型实验室环境和3种组合环境下的疲劳裂纹扩展和剩余强度进行了实验研究.通过实验获得的裂纹扩展数据,对Paris公式进行条件拟合,得到各种环境下的裂纹扩展常数,并作了对比分析.结果表明,腐蚀环境的参与使2024-T3铝合金的疲劳裂纹扩展速率明显加快,不同腐蚀环境对疲劳裂纹扩展速率的影响程度不同,其影响的严重程度由重到轻依次为:油箱结构区、厨房与厕所、油箱积存水、盐水、潮湿空气、高空环境、干燥空气.实验数据还进一步表明,腐蚀介质对临界裂纹长度的影响很小,说明环境对剩余强度能力无直接影响.     

FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH IN CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Abstract— An analysis is presented of factors causing fatigue crack resistance in metals exposed to liquid corrosive environments. A new approach involving invariant diagrams is proposed that takes simultaneous account of the stress-strain state and the electrochemical conditions at the tip of a crack. Variations in electrochemical conditions at the tip of a stationary crack and the relationship between the electrochemical conditions at the crack tip and the fatigue crack growth rate in aqueous corrosive environments are discussed with the aid of these diagrams.     

Small fatigue crack initiation and growth behavior of high-strength low alloy steel in various environments

Fatigue tests under rotating bending and reversed torsion were carried out in air, distilled water and 3% saltwater, using smooth specimens of high-strength low alloy steel (Cr-Mo steel). The initiation and growth behavior of small fatigue cracks in each environment were evaluated based on detailed observations, and the effects of corrosive environment were also discussed. The fatigue strength decreased with increasing aggressiveness of test environment. The decreases in corrosive environment were due to earlier fatigue crack initiation. From the observed locations at which small fatigue cracks began, it was considered that the crack initiation was primarily governed by hydrogen embrittlement in distilled water and also affected by corrosive dissolution in 3% saltwater. The validity of the application of linear fracture mechanics for small fatigue cracks was established. The growth rates of small fatigue cracks were higher than for large through cracks, and not accelerated by the corrosive environment. Moreover, fatigue life in the corrosive environment was estimated by using the crack growth characteristics in air.     

Nanoscopic fatigue and stress corrosion crack growth behaviour in a high-strength stainless steel visualized in situ by atomic force microscopy

In situ atomic force microscope (AFM) imaging of the fatigue and stress corrosion (SC) crack in a high‐strength stainless steel was performed, under both static and dynamic loading. The AFM systems used were (1) a newly developed AFM‐based system for analysing the nanoscopic topographies of environmentally induced damage under dynamic loads in a controlled environment and (2) an AFM system having a large sample stage together with a static in‐plane loading device. By using these systems, in situ serial clear AFM images of an environmentally induced crack under loading could be obtained in a controlled environment, such as in dry air for the fatigue and in an aqueous solution for the stress corrosion cracking (SCC). The intergranular static SC crack at the free corrosion had a sharp crack tip when it grew straight along a grain boundary. The in situ AFM observations showed that the fatigue crack grew in a steady manner on the order of sub‐micrometre. The same result was obtained for the static SC crack under the free corrosion, growing straight along a grain boundary. In these cases, the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) remained constant. However, as the static SC crack was approaching a triple grain junction, the growth rate became smaller, the CTOD value increased and the hollow ahead of the crack tip became larger. After the crack passed through the triple grain junction, it grew faster with a lower CTOD value; the changes in the CTOD value agreed with those of the crack growth rate. At the cathodic potential, the static SC crack grew in a zigzag path and in an unsteady manner, showing crack growth acceleration and retardation. This unsteady crack growth was considered to be due to the changes in the local hydrogen content near the crack tip. The changes in the CTOD value also agreed with those of the crack growth rate. The CTOD value in the corrosive environment was influenced by the microstructure of the material and the local hydrogen content, showing a larger scatter band, whereas the CTOD value of the fatigue crack in dry air was determined by the applied stress intensity factor, with a smaller scatter band. In addition, the CTOD value in the corrosive environment under both static and dynamic loading was smaller than that of the fatigue crack; the environmentally induced crack had a sharper crack tip than the fatigue crack in dry air.     

Untersuchungen zur Schwingungsrißkorrosion von unlegierten Stählen in wäßrigen Medien

Although a lot of work is done up to now in investigating corrosion fatigue many questions about the corrosion fatigue process of steel are still open. This applies for instance to the quantitative proportion at the complete damaging process which the corrosion strain component will assume and it applies moreover to special details of the crack initiation stage. The damaging process of corrosion fatigue of steel in the active state is generally supposed to proceed in the following three stages: “formation of pits”, “crack initiation” and “crack propagation”. The objective of the present study was at first to get by statistical means a quantitative assumption about the influence of the corrosive medium and secondly to get information about the contribution of pitting to the crack initiation process. Tension-compression experiments were conducted with specimen from steels Ck 15 and Ck 35 in the normalized state both without a corrosive influence (inert spindle oil) and with corrosive influence (desalted water, 3% NaCl-solution). It was found that the damaging process in its principal course is not affected by the kind of the corrosive medium but is hardly influenced by the extent of the load-amplitude at a given load-frequency.     

Failure of aircraft propeller assembly

This paper analyses the causes of the incident of a Cessna trainer whose propeller was separated due to the cracking of the propeller blade hub during the take off roll. Beach marks and fatigue striations, typical of fatigue cracks, were observed on the fracture surface and corrosive oxides were detected in the center of beach marks that are considered to be the crack origin. The stress acting on the fracture surface under a corrosive environment forms corrosive oxides, such as mud cracks. By analyzing the fractography and metallography of the failed parts, it is found that the propeller blade hub nucleated stress corrosion cracking (SCC) as a result of residual stress and corrosive environment and the SCC was the cause of the fatigue crack. Moreover, a fatigue crack reaches its critical length by repeated cyclic stress, which occurs during the rotation of the propeller blade and then, the rest of the fracture occurred instantaneously.     

Q345R钢焊接热影响区在碳酸钠和硫化氢混合介质中的应力腐蚀行为

以往对Q345R钢焊接热影响区在碳酸盐和硫化氢混合介质中的应力腐蚀开裂行为研究不多。针对石油化工行业的CO2-H2S-H2O典型腐蚀环境中Q345R钢应力腐蚀失效造成的重大事故,通过慢应变速率试验(SSRT)和楔形张开加载(WOL)预裂纹应力腐蚀试验研究了Q345R钢热影响区在Na2CO3和H2S混合环境中的应力腐蚀行为。结果表明:在Na2CO3+H2S复杂介质环境中,Q345R钢热影响部位应力腐蚀敏感性较低,其断口呈现韧性断裂形貌,WOL裂纹扩展速率较低,应力强度因子KI值基本不变,应力腐蚀倾向不明显。     

Fatigue performance of friction stir welded Al2024 alloy in a different corrosive environment

The study examines the corrosion fatigue behavior of friction stir welded Al2024 alloy in the corrosive medium. The fatigue tests are conducted at a stress ratio of -1 in the different corrosive medium. The decrease in the fatigue life of welded joints in the corrosive environment is attributed to an increase in the crack initiation susceptibility in the presence of corrosive media. The fractured surfaces are investigated using the scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The formation of the corrosive compounds was studied using x-ray diffractometry.     

Effect of Cold Drawing on Microstructure and Corrosion Performance of High-Strength Steel

This paper deals with the effect of cold drawing on a high-strength steel in wire form with pearlitic microstructure. Cold drawing produces a preferential orientation of the pearlite lamellae aligned parallel to the cold drawing direction, resulting in anisotropic properties with regard to fracture behaviour in air and aggressive environments (stress corrosion cracking). While the hot rolled bar has a randomly oriented microstructure in both transverse and longitudinal sections, the fully drawn wire presents a randomly oriented appearance in the transverse cross-section, but a marked orientation in the longitudinal cross-section. These microstructural characteristics affect the time-dependent behaviour of the steels when a crack is present in a corrosive or hydrogen environment and influences both the subcritical crack growth rate, the time to failure and the crack propagation path. It is shown that in the strongly drawn steels the crack changes its propagation path, and a micromechanical model is proposed to explain this behaviour. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Failure of stainless digester shafts in a paper production plant

The stainless steel connecting shafts of digester discharge screws of a paper production plant failed within a relatively short period after the production start of the plant. To investigate the reasons for these failures, stress analysis and material characterization of the broken shafts were performed. The test program included tensile, impact and hardness tests and metallographical and fractographical investigations. Fractographical examination verified that crack growth due to fatigue would have not been a contributing damage mechanism. Existence of chromium carbides together with a martensitic structure in the welded regions between the shaft body and its blades had provided potential zones for crack initiation. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) was judged as the main damage mechanism in the failure of the shafts. The high temperature steam containing aggressive chemical species caused SCC. Thus, the material selected for the DDS shaft is not proper with respect to resistance to the corrosive atmosphere in the digester housing.