Teaching metaphors of student nurses

This research focused on exploring the metaphors nursing students use to express their experience of university teachers' practice. A social constructivist approach to meaning underlies the process of interpreting student language in this study. The following evolved as major research questions: What are the metaphors students use to describe teaching? How do these metaphors operate? The research concluded that: students readily use metaphors to describe their experiences of teaching within the nursing degree programme; there is a pattern to the choice of metaphors; some of these images function as incremental or constructive metaphors, extending understanding of what it means to teach; others support current understandings and reflect taken-for-granted notions of teaching. Specific metaphors used by students to describe teaching were contextually analysed. A number of them may offer teachers of nursing insight, into their craft. Metaphors such as teacher as umpire, teacher as student, teaching with distance and teaching the big picture may be useful images for teachers to think about to guide their practice.     

The effect of metaphor on processing style in a persuasion task: A motivational resonance model.

Previous research on metaphor and persuasion has suggested that metaphorical language elicits an assimilation effect wherein positive metaphors elicit positive attitudes toward the communication topic and negative metaphors elicit negative evaluations. The authors of this article propose that metaphorical content can increase or decrease motivation to systematically scrutinize a persuasive communication depending on the extent to which it "resonates" with the listener's preferences and interests. Consistent with this model, 2 experiments demonstrate that a sports metaphor increases message-relevant elaboration and sensitivity to argument strength among individuals who enjoy sports. Conversely, the sports metaphor reduces message-relevant elaboration and sensitivity to argument strength among individuals who dislike sports. Findings are discussed in the context of related research that suggests metaphor can serve alternative functions in a persuasive communication task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The synergy of memory, affects and metaphor

Recently, the concept of metaphor has been revitalized as a result of the convergence of interest in this subject from a variety of disciplines including neurobiology, linguistics and cognitive science. Metaphor is now viewed as an emergent property of mind. Metaphor is rooted in the body in two senses: metaphor is used to organize bodily sensation cognitively, especially affects, and secondly, metaphor is rooted in the body as it rests on the border between mind and brain. Metaphor is therefore viewed as a developmentally early, primitive mental function related to synesthesia. There is a significant distinction between frozen or foreclosed metaphors and open and generative metaphors. The foreclosed metaphor will dominate the perception of others in cases of trauma and can be understood as an explanation of transference repetition. Clinical examples of foreclosed metaphors are illustrated by vignettes of patients who have suffered traumas. Examples taken from two artists are used to illustrate instances in which the artist's own unassimilated experiences appear as generative metaphors.     

Sandtray and solution-focused therapy.

Both solution-focused (SF) and sandtray therapies have been shown to have effective healing properties. SF, a primarily verbal therapy, uses carefully worded and timed questions and comments that solicit the clients' already existing strengths and resiliencies to solve the current and future problems. Sandtray therapy relies primarily on nonverbal communication through the use of carefully selected miniatures within the confines of a sand tray to facilitate clients' healing and strengthen internal resources. Because these therapies at first appear to be so different, it is not surprising that their combined application is rarely mentioned in the literature. Yet, similarities between the two therapies do exist and may be combined to provide an empowering and brief experiential therapeutic journey. A brief background and theoretical orientation to SF therapy is provided, accompanied by illustrations of the merger of these two approaches. Also discussed are similarities between SF and sandtray therapies and the advantages of combining them in work with children and adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapist participation in metaphor generation: Collaborative and noncollaborative styles.

Examined how therapists and clients construct, express, and apprehend metaphors. Five client-generated and 6 therapist-generated metaphors were selected across 4 therapy dyads, with 1 therapy session being focused on in each dyad. The clients had been in therapy for 12 sessions, and the therapists had 5–20 yrs of experience. Each S's and therapist's recollections of the metaphoric events were stimulated by audiotape playback within 24 hrs of the therapy session. Participants' recollections included thoughts and feelings that had been kept private in the therapy session. A qualitative analysis of the participants' accounts revealed that each dyad entailed 1 of 2 distinct patterns of metaphoric communication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Framing public policy and prevention of chronic violence in American youths.

Metaphors can both inspire and mislead the public. Current metaphors for youth violence are inconsistent with scientific evidence about how chronic violence develops and evoke inaccurate or harmful reactions. Popular, problematic metaphors include superpredator, quarantining the contagious, corrective surgery, man as computer, vaccine, and chronic disease. Four new metaphors that more accurately reflect the science of child development are proposed to shape the field. Preventive dentistry offers a lifelong system of universal, selected, and indicated intervention policies. Cardiovascular disease offers concepts of distal risk factors, proximal processes, equifinality and multifinality, and long-term prevention. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's public health model focuses on injury and the victim to elicit popular support. Public education for illiteracy offers concepts of long-term universal education coupled with specialized help for high-risk youths and goes beyond metaphor to represent a truly applicable framework. Research is proposed to test the scientific merit for and public receptivity to these metaphors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The quest for "similar instances" and "simultaneous possibilities": Metaphors in social dilemma research.

Since the time of the ancient Greeks, metaphors have been revered by scholars in all disciplines for their unsurpassed epistemological value. In this article, the authors review the role of the metaphor in the acquisition of knowledge and advancement of science, with specific emphasis on the ways in which metaphors have informed theory and research in social dilemmas. In highlighting the abundance and variety of social dilemma metaphors, the authors focus on metaphors' role in suggesting fresh theoretical perspectives, novel methodological approaches, and new insights with regard to solutions and practical applications. They suggest promising directions for future research and offer strategies for taking further advantage of the special relationship between metaphors and social dilemmas. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From perceptual rags to metaphoric riches—Bodily, social, and cultural constraints on sociocognitive metaphors: Comment on Landau, Meier, and Keefer (2010).

What leads people to describe some of their interpersonal relationships as “close” and “warm” and others as “distant” and “cold”? Landau, Meier, and Keefer (2010) proposed that conceptual metaphors facilitate social cognition by allowing people to use knowledge from a relatively concrete (source) domain (e.g., physical distance) in understanding a different, usually more abstract (target) concept (e.g., love). We concur that such a notion of metaphors can greatly enrich the field of social cognition. At the same time, we believe it is important to devote greater theoretical attention to the nature of metaphorical representations in social cognition. We believe that Landau et al. place too much emphasis on sociocognitive metaphors as top-down knowledge structures and pay too little attention to the constraints that shape metaphors from the bottom up. In the present contribution, we highlight important bottom-up constraints, imposed through bodily constraints and social scaffolds. Sociocognitive metaphors do not exist just for mental representation but for action as well. We discuss the relevance of grounding sociocognitive metaphors for broader motivational purposes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of A critical psychology.

Reviews the book, A critical psychology by Edmund V. Sullivan (1984). Sullivan examines three metaphors as the basis for developing a proper psychology. He rejects the mechanical and the organic metaphors as reductionistic and too limiting as a basis for understanding man, and advances what he calls the personal metaphor. By this he means personhood-Iness embedded in culture. This has to do with I, the agent and my projects, embedded in a determining social structure in the background. Although there is much discussion about this metaphor, its meaning is never made as explicit as the two he rejects. This book will be difficult for the typical psychologist to read because the author introduces a lot of strange terminology, and he doesn't communicate in the usual way. He writes more like an old-time philosopher or a theologian, or one of the other humanities experts--like someone dealing with the ineffable, which may well be the case. While the reviewer is in agreement with most of the author's criticisms of contemporary psychology, such as it is not a coherent discipline, not enough attention is paid to methodology other than experimental, and more attention should be paid to philosophical issues, the reviewer sees no reason to adopt his alternative. The trouble with critics such as Sullivan is that they don't demonstrate how we should go about the business of doing psychology--they merely talk about it. And until those who want an alternative clearly demonstrate what their alternative looks like, nothing will change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Everyday technologies for extraordinary circumstances: Possibilities for enhancing disaster communication.

Researchers have found that disasters often devastate key community infrastructures leading to obstructions in communication (e.g., Bostian et al., 2002). Although Rebmann, Carrico, and English (2008) found that communication is vital to successful disaster preparedness and response, they noted that maintaining communication prior to, during, and after times of disaster is extremely difficult. However, it appears that disaster communication may be enhanced through novel uses of new and existing technology resources. The purpose of this article is to highlight how commonly used personal technology tools have been or might be utilized in novel ways to enhance disaster communication. Furthermore, it is hoped that the novel applications discussed may be used to help buffer against the short-term and long-term traumatic effects of disasters related to obstructions in communication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The evolution of mental metaphors in psychology: A 90-year retrospective.

Examined the evolution of mental metaphors in psychology by tracing changes in the types of metaphors used by psychologists to describe mental phenomena. A corpus of metaphors from 1894 to the present was collected and examined. The corpus consisted of all metaphors for mental phenomena used in the 1st issue of Psychological Review in each decade, beginning with the inception of the journal in 1894 and continuing through 1975. These 9 issues yielded 265 mental metaphors that were categorized according to the type of analogical domain from which the comparison was drawn. Results show that the nature of the mental metaphors changed over time. Spatial metaphors and animate-being metaphors predominated in the early stages, then declined in favor of systems metaphors taken from mathematics and the physical sciences. The numbers of mental metaphors varied. Metaphors for mental phenomena were more prevalent in the early and late stages of the corpus than in the middle stages (1935–1955). These patterns are interpreted in terms of conceptual evolution in psychologists' models of the mind. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ten years on and more: establishing programmes of rehabilitation education: the New Zealand case

Neurologically impaired individuals, their family members, nurses, and physicians generally have few terms with which to describe neurological sensations and events. Neuro-talk is a made-up word to describe the unique language needs of persons affected by neurological conditions. Strategies to cope with neurological conditions vary, and most are less than successful. As a result, many individuals are unable to communicate effectively about their situation, and in return, others find it difficult to converse with them. This awkward impasse does not have to be, for communication patterns can be improved and enhanced. Nurses can teach people to use an enriched vocabulary, to explain their situation with metaphors and analogies, and to understand specifics about anatomy and physiology. This will offer nurses opportunities to interact productively and meaningfully with neurologically impaired individuals.     

Music cognition and the cognitive psychology of film structure.

Early 20th century psychologists drew attention to similarities between mental processes elicited by film and by music. Contemporary film theorists have also noted analogous film and music structures, and contemporary psychologists have used musical metaphors in discussions of film perception and cognition. These psychological parallels have not been explored through experimental research, in part, because of scarce experimental psychological research on film in contrast to the vast amount on music. The present article proposes that music cognition research provides insight into the perception of formal structure in film, taking as support an analysis of the film The Red Violin. The analysis reveals similarities between film and music with respect to 3 kinds of musical structure: central reference (tonality), large-scale form (rondo), and small-scale form (motif). Experiments are proposed to reveal the similarity in the mental processes engaged by music and film for each of the three types of structure, respectively. The application of principles and methods of music cognition to film psychology supports the intuitions of early psychological film theorists. The approach also generalizes to other art forms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Les nuages sont un troupeau de moutons: à quel age les enfants comprennent-ils qu'il n'y pas de moutons dans le ciel?

This study examined the evolution of metaphor understanding in 4- to 7-year-old children. In Experiment 1, children listened to metaphoric and literal statements that were preceded by a context, and then had to choose among three proposed interpretations (literal, contextual, and correct for metaphors; one correct and two erroneous for literal statements), which one corresponded to the statement. Results showed that, between 4 and 7, children improved at choosing the correct interpretation only for metaphors, and that they frequently chose contextual interpretations. The metaphor-specific improvement might be explained in terms of a gain in cognitive flexibility, since for these statements, three acceptable interpretations were proposed compared to only one for literal statements. In Experiment 2, for all statements, children had to choose between three proposed interpretations, one correct and two erroneous. The difference between metaphors and literal statements was replicated. Metaphor understanding thus evolves between 4 and 7; depending on their age, children use the context or perform a semantic analysis of the words composing the statements. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Getting out of our conceptual ruts: Strategies for expanding conceptual frameworks.

Presents 4 sets of strategies that may be useful for generating new perspectives on familiar research problems. It is suggested that researchers should play with ideas through a process of selecting and applying metaphors, representing ideas graphically, changing the scale, and attending to process. Researchers should also place specific problems in a larger domain, make comparisons outside the problem domain, examine processes in the settings in which they naturally occur, consider the practical implications of research, and probe library resources. It is important for researchers to probe and tinker with assumptions through such techniques as exposing hidden assumptions, making the opposite assumption, and simultaneously trusting and doubting the same assumption. Finally, it is vital that researchers clarify and systematize their conceptual frameworks. They should scrutinize the meanings of key concepts, specify relationships among concepts, and write a concept paper. (69 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding metaphorical comparisons: Beyond similarity.

Traditionally, metaphors such as "my job is a jail" have been treated as implicit similes (i.e., this metaphor would be treated as if it were a comparison statement, "my job is like a jail"). A. Tversky's (1977) account of similarity is applied to such nonliteral similarity expressions, and is shown to apply as readily to nonliteral comparisons as to literal comparisons. But treating metaphors as comparison statements fails to account for certain important phenomena, including metaphoricity itself (the judgment that a comparison statement is nonliteral). We argue that metaphors are exactly what they appear to be: class-inclusion assertions, in which the topic of the metaphor (e.g., "my job") is assigned to a diagnostic category (e.g., entities that confine one against one's will, are unpleasant, are difficult to escape from). In such assertions, the metaphor vehicle (e.g., "jail") refers to that category, and at the same time is a prototypical exemplar of that category. This account of metaphor provides a basis for a theory of metaphor comprehension, and also clarifies why people use metaphors instead of similes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Metaphor in Personality Theory.

Because the more advanced sciences, in their present state of development, are largely concerned with highly formalized and precise statements of relationship among phenomena, many psychologists take it as their immediate task to develop such formalized statements in psychology. In order to pursue such a course, they prefer to bypass those more primitive stages of thinking through which other sciences have progressed. One such mode of primitive thinking is metaphorical. Metaphor frequently permits, even induces, a new conception to unfold. Such a germinal metaphor, especially when unrecognized by the thinker, may be obscure or confused; but this very lack of clarity may give rise to tensions within the thinker which act to resolve the ambiguities in the metaphor. The instability of a metaphor can thus serve to broaden the thinker's horizon beyond the limits of what is given here and now and to sharpen his appreciation of the possibilities for further theoretical development. The history of psychology has been enriched by metaphor. For example, metaphors were a fruitful influence in generating the personality theories of McDougall and of Freud. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence for role-neutral initial processing of metaphors.

Two models of metaphor processing are contrasted. The structure-mapping model postulates an initially role-neutral alignment process, followed by directional projection of inferences. The attributive categorization model postulates role-specific processing throughout comprehension. To test between these models, the early stages of metaphor comprehension were probed using a technique based on S. Glucksberg, R. Gildea, and H. Bookin's (1982) finding that metaphorical meaning interferes with literal truthfulness judgments. In Experiment 1, interference effects did not differ between normal metaphors and metaphors with reversed terms, suggesting that initial processing is role-neutral. In Experiment 2, we again found no role dependence in interference effects, even for highly conventional metaphors. In Experiment 3, it was verified that (a) full comprehension is role-sensitive and (b) full comprehension reaction times (RTs) are far longer than interference RTs, buttressing the claim that interference is an early-stage effect. Overall, the results support the structure-mapping model of metaphor processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What's "up" with God? Vertical space as a representation of the divine.

"God" and "Devil" are abstract concepts often linked to vertical metaphors (e.g., "glory to God in the highest," "the Devil lives down in hell"). It is unknown, however, whether these metaphors simply aid communication or implicate a deeper mode of concept representation. In 6 experiments, the authors examined the extent to which the vertical dimension is used in noncommunication contexts involving God and the Devil. Experiment 1 established that people have implicit associations between God-Devil and up-down. Experiment 2 revealed that people encode God-related concepts faster if presented in a high (vs. low) vertical position. Experiment 3 found that people's memory for the vertical location of God- and Devil-like images showed a metaphor-consistent bias (up for God; down for Devil). Experiments 4, 5a, and 5b revealed that people rated strangers as more likely to believe in God when their images appeared in a high versus low vertical position, and this effect was independent of inferences related to power and likability. These robust results reveal that vertical perceptions are invoked when people access divinity-related cognitions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Distinguishing types of superficial similarities: Different effects on the access and use of earlier problems.

When solving a problem, people often access and make use of an earlier problem. A common view is that superficial similarities may affect which earlier problem is accessed, but they have little or no effect on how that earlier problem is used. The reported experiments provide evidence against this view. Subjects learned four probability principles illustrated by word problems. Test problems varied in their similarity to the study problems in three ways: story lines, objects, and correspondence of objects' roles (i.e., whether similar objects filled similar roles). The superficial similarity of object correspondences had a large effect on use (Experiment 1), although it sometimes had little or no effect on access (Experiment 2). Experiment 3 showed that two superficial similarities, story lines and object correspondences, differentially affect and use. These results suggest a more complex role of superficial similarity in problem solving and the need for distinguishing types of superficial similarities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)