Human milk oligosaccharides. The rule in the health and development of the infants

Breast-feeding is the optimal mode of feeding for the normal full-term infant. Human milk composition knowledge has been basis for recommended dietary allowances for infants. Few studies about human milk carbohydrates have been done until the last decade. However, carbohydrates provide approximately 40-50% of the total energy content of breast milk. Quantitatively oligosaccharides are the third largest solute in human milk after lactose and fat. Each individual oligosaccharide is based on a variable combination of glucose, galactose, sialic acid, fucose and N-acetylglucosamine with many and varied linkages between them, thus accounting for the enormous number of different oligosaccharides in human milk. The oligosaccharides content in human milk varies with the duration of lactation, diurnally and with the genetic makeup of the mother. At present, a great interest in the roles of human milk oligosaccharides is raising. They act as a the soluble fibre in breast milk and their structure is available to act as competitive ligands protecting the breast-fed infant from pathogens and act as well as prebiotic. They may also act as source of sialic acid and galactose, essential for brain development. This is why today there is an increasing health and industrial interest in human milk oligosaccharides content, with the main purpose of incorporating them as new ingredients in infant nutrition.     

Lactational changes in concentration and distribution of ganglioside molecular species in human breast milk from Chinese mothers

Gangliosides play a critical role in human brain development and function. Human breast milk (HBM) is an important dietary source of gangliosides for the growing infant. In this study, ganglioside concentrations were measured in the breast milk from a cross‐sectional sample of Chinese mothers over an 8‐month lactation period. The average total ganglioside concentration increased from 13.1 mg/l during the first month to 20.9 mg/l by 8 months of lactation. The average concentration during the typically solely breast‐feeding period of 1?6 months was 18.9 mg/l. This is the first study to report the relative distribution of the individual ganglioside molecular species through lactation for any population group. The ganglioside molecular species are made up of different fatty acid moieties that influence the physical properties of these gangliosides, and hence affect their function. The GM₃ molecular species containing long‐chain acyl fatty acids had the most prominent changes, increasing in both concentration and relative distribution. The equivalent long‐chain acyl fatty acid GD₃ molecular species typically decreased in concentration and relative distribution. The lactational trends for both concentration and relative distribution for the very long‐chain acyl fatty acid molecular species were more varied. The major GM₃ and GD₃ molecular species during lactation were d40:1 and d42:1, respectively. An understanding of ganglioside molecular species distribution in HBM is essential for accurate application of mass spectrometry methods for ganglioside quantification.     

Factors that influence the antirachitic value of milk for infant feeding

Summary It is quite evident from the foregoing that both breast milk and cow’s milk contain variable amounts of calcium, phosphorus and Vitamin D. Since these factors are of primary importance for promoting satisfactory bone growth it is apparent that neither breast milk nor cow’s milk can always be depended upon to protect infants against rickets. Hence it has become a quite general practice to supplement breast milk with orange juice and cod liver oil or other sources of the necessary vitamins, and modify cow’s milk by adding materials which supply the desired minerals, vitamins and calories. Accordingly the need for careful supervision of the diet of the infant has become very generally accepted, particularly as the infant’s dietary is very restricted and its margin of safety as regards its nutritive requirements is lower than during later life.     

Melatonin in Early Nutrition: Long-Term Effects on Cardiovascular System

Breastfeeding protects against adverse cardiovascular outcomes in the long term. Melatonin is an active molecule that is present in the breast milk produced at night beginning in the first stages of lactation. This indoleamine appears to be a relevant contributor to the benefits of breast milk because it can affect infant health in several ways. The melatonin concentration in breast milk varies in a circadian pattern, making breast milk a chrononutrient. The consumption of melatonin can induce the first circadian stimulation in the infant’s body at an age when his/her own circadian machinery is not functioning yet. This molecule is also a powerful antioxidant with the ability to act on infant cells directly as a scavenger and indirectly by lowering oxidant molecule production and enhancing the antioxidant capacity of the body. Melatonin also participates in regulating inflammation. Furthermore, melatonin can participate in shaping the gut microbiota composition, richness, and variation over time, also modulating which molecules are absorbed by the host. In all these ways, melatonin from breast milk influences weight gain in infants, limiting the development of obesity and comorbidities in the long term, and it can help shape the ideal cellular environment for the development of the infant’s cardiovascular system.     

The potential value of cultured dairy products for child nutrition

The author suggests that under certain conditions cultured milk, rather than fluid milk, can be used for infant and child nutrition as well as for school milk programs. Some of the major problems with fluid milk, fresh or reconstituted, are discussed. A review of the literature indicates that the assumption of lactose intolerance among many populations is exaggerated. Inappropriate handling of pasteurized milk very often is responsible for a high bacterial count and organoleptic defects. Such quality defects are more pronounced in countries with a warm climate. The use of polluted water in the reconstitution of milk powder, is probably more often responsible for diarrhea than lactose intolerance. For these reasons it is suggested that under appropriate conditions a cultured milk product such as yogurt or quark, be used for infant and child nutrition. The advantages are: 1) the low pH caused by the high lactic acid content detrimentally affects food spoilage and pathogenic organisms in milk; 2) longer shelf life of the fermented product at ambient temperature; and 3) fermented milk products contain the enzyme lactase which facilitates digestion of residual lactose even after ingestion.     

Exploring the Role of Different Neonatal Nutrition Regimens during the First Week of Life by Urinary GC-MS Metabolomics

In this study, a gas-chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) metabolomics study was applied to examine urine metabolite profiles of different classes of neonates under different nutrition regimens. The study population included 35 neonates, exclusively either breastfed or formula milk fed, in a seven-day timeframe. Urine samples were collected from intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), large for gestational age (LGA), and appropriate gestational age (AGA) neonates. At birth, IUGR and LGA neonates showed similarities in their urine metabolite profiles that differed from AGA. When neonates started milk feeding, their metabolite excretion profile was strongly characterized by the different diet regimens. After three days of formula milk nutrition, urine had higher levels of glucose, galactose, glycine and myo-inositol, while up-regulated aconitic acid, aminomalonic acid and adipic acid were found in breast milk fed neonates. At seven days, neonates fed with formula milk shared higher levels of pseudouridine with IUGR and LGA at birth. Breastfed neonates shared up-regulated pyroglutamic acid, citric acid, and homoserine, with AGA at birth. The role of most important metabolites is herein discussed.     

Supplemental Conjugated Linoleic Acid Consumption Does Not Influence Milk Macronutrient Contents in all Healthy Lactating Women

The term “conjugated linoleic acid” (CLA) refers to a group of positional and geometric isomers that are derived from linoleic acid and are found primarily in meat and milk products from ruminant animals. Due to the array of putative benefits associated with various forms of CLA, there has been recent interest in supplementing human diets with these fatty acids especially when weight loss is desired. However, in many animal models, CLA has been shown to decrease milk fat production. There is some concern, therefore, that maternal CLA supplementation during lactation might inadvertently decrease nutrient supply to the nursing infant. However, there is only limited research on the effect of CLA consumption on milk fat content in women. Based on previously published work from our laboratory, we hypothesized that CLA supplementation would reduce the milk fat percentage in lactating women in a dose-dependent manner. Breastfeeding women (n = 12) were assigned randomly to treatments of 4 g/day safflower oil (SFO), 2 g/day CLA plus 2 g/day SFO, or 4 g/day CLA in a double blind, 3 × 3 Latin square design. Conjugated linoleic acid supplements contained approximately equal amounts of cis9,trans11–18:2 and trans10,cis12–18:2; the two most common isoforms of CLA. Milk was collected by complete breast expression on the last day (day 5) of each intervention period and analyzed for macronutrient and fatty acid composition. On day 4 of each intervention period, infant milk consumption was estimated by 24 h weighing of the infant. Washout periods were 9 days in length. We observed a dose-dependent increase in the concentrations of cis9,trans11–18:2 and trans10,cis12–18:2 in the milk fat. However, we detected neither a change in overall macronutrient composition nor infant milk consumption. These data do not support those obtained from animal models or our previous human work suggesting that consumption of CLA mixtures necessarily reduces milk fat. It is possible that either (1) the interpretation of our previously published data should be reevaluated, and/or (2) there are important intra- and inter-species differences in this regard.     

The Importance of Lipid Research in Medicine — Requirements and Utilization of Results

Authors review, according to literature data, the correlation between nutrition and serum lipids. Lipid metabolism is influenced by the total daily fat and cholesterol intake and by the P/S ratio although a significant part of cholesterol is of endogenous origin. The decrease of fat consumption results in the decrease of the frequency of coronary and — generally — of vascular diseases. The alterations in the coronary vessels are more severe in the case of higher serum cholesterol and triglyceride values. The inverse association of HDL-cholesterol with the development of CHD is already a well-known fact. It is very important that by these diseases several other risk factors are involved too and the exciting causes are of multiple kind. Prophylactic nutrition must be started in the young and at the same time efforts should be made to eliminate and decrease the correlating factors. The physiological role of polyunsaturated fatty acids is reported, which are considered as important but not sole favourable factors. The physiological effect of the trans-fatty acids, which develop by the hydrogenation of oils, is different from that of those cis-isomers occurring in the organism but their significance depends on the state of EFA supply. Fat consumption shows correlation with renal diseases and with malignant tumours too. The fatty acid composition of human milk is highly important, for the present, infant formulae do not approach it. Fat consumption in Hungary is high: 31 kg per man/per year which covers the 37 percent of daily energy intake. In the course of industrial processing of fats, processes with more favourable physiological effects have to be preferred, e. g. transesterification. That's why the cooperation between physicians and experts of the industry has to be even closer in the future.     

Cariogenicity and cariostatic properties of different types of milk-review

The purpose of this study is to introduce some information about local and systemic effects of different kinds of milk in oral health, through the explicitness of its cariogenicity and cariostatic properties. Different kinds of milk and milk products are consumed most commonly by the worldwide population, raising the interest of researchers in its influence in the oral health for some decades. Several studies have been conducted to associate the consumption of bovine-, human- and infant formula-milk with caries development and other dental defect, but controversial results have not been able to define the cariogenic and cariostatic potential of different kinds of milk. Bovine milk has some cariostatic components as casein, lipids and antibacterial enzyme, though it has 4% lactose, supposedly cariogenic sugar. Human milk has been related to a sort of caries which is like bottle caries, even though some studies have demonstrated its non cariogenicity. The infant formula milk, which is elaborated for specific period in the childhood, has received low control on its potential for developing caries. It could be of great value to elucidate the controversy surrounding the cariogenicity and cariostatic properties of different kinds of milk, concerning caries prevention during infant and adult life.     

Function mechanisms of polyamines in rosin sizing under neutral papermaking conditions

The surface analyses of the papers sized with a rosin emulsion (RE) and five typical polyamines, polyallylamine (PAAm), polyvinylamine (PVAm), polyethyleneimine (PEI), poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride (PDADMAC), and poly(dimethylamino ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA), were performed using a X‐ray photoelectron spectrometer. The results show that the chemical states of the polyamines on the outermost surfaces of the papers changed significantly during the neutral rosin sizing. The five polyamines could react with carboxyl groups of the fibers to form urethane linkages at 400.0 ± 0.1 eV, which resulted in absorption of the polyamines onto the fibers. Only PAAm and PVAm could combine with RE to form urethane linkages at 400.7–0.1 eV, which were related deeply to sizing effectiveness. The polyamines distributed mainly on the surfaces of the fibers. The concentrations of PAAm and PVAm on the surfaces of the sized papers were much larger than those of PEI, PDMAEMA, and PDADMAC. A larger sizing degree was related to a larger C1 component at 285.0 eV (C? C) in the C1s XPS spectra of the sized papers. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 80: 2185–2190, 2001     

牛奶中乳糖含量的测定

牛奶是生活中不可或缺的营养品,乳糖是牛奶的重要组成成分之一,测定牛奶中乳糖的含量可以确定牛奶是否掺假。目前牛奶中乳糖的测定方法有很多,主要从旋光仪法、比色法、酶化学法、离子色谱电化学修饰法、高效液相色谱法、近红外光谱法以及光折射法做了主要介绍。     

Biotechnological and Novel Approaches for Designing Structured Lipids Intended for Infant Nutrition

Human milk fat (HMF) is a perfect nutritional source that includes all the required ingredients which are necessary for the growth of infants up to 6 months. Although its composition may differ among mothers or during lactation stage, its unique triacylglycerol (TAG) structure remains constant which is characterized by the presence of palmitic acid (PA) at the sn‐2 position. Previous reports provided convincing information of higher PA and calcium absorption and efficient use of dietary energy when at this specific position in the TAG moiety than when PA is at the sn‐1,3 positions. During the design of structured lipids (SLs) intended for infant nutrition, this unique property is taken into consideration. Human milk fat substitutes (HMFS) enriched with important fatty acids such as omega‐3 and omega‐6 fatty acids are intended to better mimic the functions of HMF as well as provide associated health benefits. The use of microencapsulation technology and novel technologies such as ultrasound technology in conjunction with SL production and enzyme‐catalyzed reactions are evolving and ongoing issues in infant formula production. Therefore, further studies should be directed towards new process improvements in order to increase the functional properties and oxidative stabilities of HMFS. Novel technologies in lipid biotechnology related to HMFS preparation should also be explored.     

Nutritional contribution of soy protein to food systems

From the nutritional point of view, soybeans can play a significant role in at least three aspects: as a source of supplementary and complementary protein, as a source of calories, and as a source of nitrogen. The protein role is probably the most important for food systems of developed and underdeveloped populations, while the role as a source of protein and calories applies more to food systems of developing populations. Soy protein efficiently supplements cereal grain protein, because it corrects the lysine deficiency of cereals. In some cases, for example with maize, it also corrects the tryptophan deficiency. On the other hand, the essential amino acid pattern of soybean protein complements that of other protein sources, for example cereal grains, cottonseed flour, and, in general, lysine deficient protein sources. This makes feasible the preparation of foods of optimum protein quality and of a high protein content. Because of its quality, soybean protein can replace animal protein without a significant decrease in nutritive value, for example as milk and meat extender; for diets low in quantity and quality of protein and deficient in calories, soybeans, as full-fat flour, provide both. Because of cultural eating habits, it is difficult to conceive the use of soybeans as complete substitutes of common beans; therefore, efforts should be made to use soy protein in combination with common foods used by populations to whom soybeans are foreign food. Examples of the nutritional benefits derived from the use of soybean protein as flour or protein concentrate or as full-fat soybean flour are given, particularly for foods consumed in Latin American countries. Besides the role soybeans play in human foods, they also play a significant role in the animal industry as a very important component of diets. The efficiency of the swine and poultry industry would be lower if it were not for the nutritional contribution of soybeans.     

On the Mechanisms of Surface Formation and the Surface Compositions of Industrial Milk Powders

Surface composition of powders is expected to play important role during its end use. Understanding the mechanism of the powder surface formation in terms of the compositional aspect and the ability to control the surface composition will be highly useful in milk powder quality improvement and new product development. In this work, the distribution of milk components in the near surface region of the industrial spray-dried milk powders (skim milk powder and whole milk powder) was studied using electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) combined with the free fat extraction procedures. The results showed that the surface composition is very much different from the bulk composition of powders indicating a kind of solid/solute segregation that must occur during spray-drying, in particular in the period of before a solid crust is formed. This observation has also been supported by theoretical consideration with estimated diffusivity ratios of milk components in liquid.     

Breast feeding in the etiology of diarrhea

Information derived from different anthropological studies carried out in Guatemala as part of the activities of the maternal and child health and nutrition project reveal that, according to popular beliefs, maternal milk plays a definite role in the etiology of diarrheal diseases in the lactating child. This paper presents information on popular classification of diarrheal diseases that differ from biomedical definitions of same. Different factors that may alter the quality of mothers' breast milk and that may cause gastrointestinal diseases in the lactating child are given in detail. The possibilities and limitations of the popular concept frame of "hot-cold", so common in the popular medical beliefs in Latin American populations, are also pointed out as an explanatory model. Lastly, implications of findings in this study are suggested for public health programs, especially for the communication and education programs on breast feeding, and for the application of the high-risk focus.     

地下水有机污染的原位生物修复进展

综述了国外地下水有机污染原位生物修复的研究与应用进展过程,着重阐述微生物,电子受体,营养元素和环境因素对生物降解的影响。指出土著菌,溶解氧的关键作用和基因工程菌,胶态微气泡的应用前景,并展望了今后我国地下水有机污染治理的趋势。     

The DINO trial – challenges for translation into clinical practice

Infants born prematurely require higher amounts of dietary docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) than can be supplied through current strategies. Increasing the DHA content of breast milk and formula while achievable may not be the most efficacious approach. A new approach is required that enables direct delivery to the infant enabling maximum dose to be achieved as early as possible.     

Breast feeding in different income classes in the Municipality of S?o Paulo

The relationship between breast feeding and socioeconomic factors in children below 2 from different social classes in Sao Paulo, Brazil is analyzed. Of a total 200 children, 46 were malnourished and 31 belonged to the lower socioeconomic classes. 39% of mothers from the lower income families breastfed for 6 months, as compared to 13% of mothers from families with higher incomes 18% and 36% of mothers from the 2 classes did not breastfeed; mothers from the middle class breastfed for an average 28 days. The problem of protein-calorie malnutrition in young children is a growing one in Brazil, even in a relatively rich city such as Sao Paulo; one of the factors responsible for this problem is undoubtedly early weaning. Reasons given for early weaning in a group of 351 mothers were deficient amount of milk (49.6%), medical advice (11.1%), "bad" milk (14.3%), and only 1.4% because of occupation outside of the home. When interviewed about their opinion on the best type of milk for infants, 45% out of a group of 500 mothers indicated artificial milk, 37% maternal milk, and 16.2% cow's milk. Out of 492 mothers, 77% had 4 prenatal visits at a public health center, 11% had no prenatal visits, and 12% had 1-3 visits. Prenatal care does not influence attitude in favor of breast feeding; 45.5% of mothers who had not had any prenatal care breastfed for 6 months or more, as compared to 20% of those with 1-3 visits, and 17.5% of those with 4 visits. Those who delivered in a hospital tended to breastfeed more than those who delivered at home. It is obvious that not only mothers but health workers as well must be educated on the importance of breast feeding to fight infant malnutrition in Brazil.     

Lipids and human milk

To support the growth and development of the breast‐fed infant, human milk provides the dietary essential fatty acids, linoleic acid (LA; 18:2n‐6), α‐linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n‐3), as well as longer‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids including arachidonic acid (20:4n‐6) and docosahexanoic (DHA 22:6n‐3). The linoleic acid, alpha‐linolenic acid, DHA and arachidonic acid concentration of pasteurized and unpasteurized human milk remains stable during the first month of storage at –20°C and –80°C. However after the first month, a slow decrease in concentration progresses until the end of 6 months of storage at both temperatures. The levels of n‐6 and n‐3 fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid, alpha‐linolenic acid and DHA, in human milk vary widely within and among different populations, and are readily changed by maternal dietary intake of the respective fatty acid. The present paper reviews recent understanding from key researchers of maternal diet and human milk fat composition and form our work the effect of milk fat composition on storage conditions. It is important to understand that maternal diet can affect human milk fat composition and subsequently infant development and growth.     

Concentrations of calcium,magnesium, sodium and potassium in human milk and infant formulas

Concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium were determined in 55 samples of mature human milk from Canary women and 5 samples of powdered infant formula. According to the literature our data fell within the normal intervals described for each kind of milk. The mean concentration of Ca, Mg, Na y K of powdered infant formula was higher than those concentrations found in the human milks. Significant differences among the concentrations of Ca, Mg and Na for the milks of the considered mothers were observed. Only the Ca intakes for infants fed with human milk were lower than those requirements recommended by the Food and Nutrition Board (1989). However, the infants fed with powdered infant formula had an adequate intake of all the studied metals. A progressive decrease of the Na, K and Ca concentrations with the lactation stage was observed. Maternal age, parity and sex of the newborns did not affect the metal concentrations significantly.