Cyprinus carpio fish oil: A novel feedstock for biodiesel production

Biodiesel was developed from a novel nonedible oil source, namely Cyprinus carpio fish oil. The acid value of fish oil was very low (0.70 mg KOH/g oil, 0.35 free fatty acid content). As a result, biodiesel was produced through a one-step transesterifcation process, i.e. alkali-catalyzed transesterification with methanol. The optimal conditions for producing biodiesel from fish oil were investigated. The highest biodiesel yield (97.22% ~ 96.88% w/w ester content) was obtained under optimum conditions of 0.75% KOH w/w, 7:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 60°C reaction temperature and 60-minute duration. Properties of the produced biodiesel as well as its blends with petro-diesel fulfilled the standard limits as prescribed by ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 indicating its suitability as a fuel for diesel engines.     

Production and evaluation of biodiesel from mixed castor oil and waste chicken oil

Biodiesel was developed from an unconventional feedstock, i.e. an equivalent blend of castor bean and waste chicken oil through the alkaline-catalyzed transesterification with methanol. The process variables including the alkaline catalyst concentration, methanol to oil molar ratio, reaction temperature, reaction time, and the alkaline catalyst type were investigated. The highest yield of biodiesel (97.20 % ~ 96.98 % w/w ester content) was obtained under optimum conditions of 0.75 % w/w of oil, 8:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 60°C temperature, and a duration of 30 min. Properties of the produced biodiesel satisfied those specified by the ASTM standards. The results thus indicated that the suggested blend oils are suitable feedstock for the production of biodiesel. The process was found to follow pseudo first-order kinetics, and the activation energy was found to be 8.85 KJ/mole.     

Biodiesel production from Nerium oleander (Thevetia peruviana) oil through conventional and ultrasonic irradiation methods

In the present research work, Nerium oleander oil has been used as raw material for producing biodiesel using both ultrasonic transesterification and a magnetic stirrer method. A two-step transesterification process was carried out for optimum condition of 0.40% V/V methanol to oil ratio, 1% V/V H₂SO₄ catalyst, 55°C temperature, and 60 min reaction time followed by treatment with 0.2% V/V methanol to oil ratio, 1% V/W KOH alkaline catalyst, 55°C temperature, and 60 min reaction time. The process is repeated with an ultrasonic method at the frequency of 28 kHz using ultrasonic horn type reactor (50 W) for about 10–15 min. Biodiesel obtained from ultrasonic method and magnetic stirrer was then compared for their percentage yield and physiochemical properties. Ultrasonic transesterification process gave a maximum yield of 97% by weight of oleander biodiesel along with improved physiochemical characteristics. Therefore, it is concluded that ultrasonic method is the most effective method for converting crude oleander oil into biodiesel.     

Preparation of biodiesel from nonedible oils using a mixture of used lipases

Biodiesel was synthesized from nonedible oils using a lipase mixture composed of used and discarded Candida rugusa, Candida antactica-B (Novozyme-435), Pseudomonas cepacia, Rhizopus oryzae, and porcine pancreas Type II lipase. To avoid the lipase deactivation stepwise addition of 6 mmol of methanol to 1 mmol of oil lead to 93% biodiesel yield. Addition of 10 wt% of silica gel to the reaction mixture resulted in 97% biodiesel. The lipase mixture was recycled for five times and at the end of the fifth cycle 86% biodiesel was formed.     

Okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil for biodiesel production

Biodiesel was derived from okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil by methanol-induced transesterification using an alkali catalyst. Transesterification of the tested okra seed oil under optimum conditions: 7:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 1.00% (w/w) NaOCH₃ catalyst, temperature 65 °C and 600 rpm agitation intensity exhibited 96.8% of okra oil methyl esters (OOMEs) yield. The OOMEs/biodiesel produced was analyzed by GC/MS, which showed that it mainly consisted of four fatty acids: linoleic (30.31%), palmitic (30.23%), oleic (29.09%) and stearic (4.93%). A small amount of 2-octyl cyclopropaneoctanoic acid with contribution 1.92% was also established. Fuel properties of OOMEs such as density, kinematic viscosity, cetane number, oxidative stability, lubricity, flash point, cold flow properties, sulfur contents and acid value were comparable with those of ASTM D 6751 and EN 14214, where applicable. It was concluded that okra seed oil is an acceptable feedstock for biodiesel production.     

Optimisation of base-catalysed transesterification of Simarouba glauca oil for biodiesel production

Biodiesel was prepared from the crude oil of Simarouba glauca by transesterification with methanol in the presence of KOH as a catalyst. The reaction parameters such as catalyst concentration, alcohol to oil molar ratio, temperature and rate of mixing were optimised for the production of Simarouba oil methyl ester. The yield of methyl esters from Simarouba oil under the optimal condition was 94–95%. Important fuel properties of methyl esters of Simarouba oil (biodiesel) was compared with ASTM and DIN EN 14214. The viscosity was found to be 4.68 Cst at 40°C and the flashpoint was 165°C.     

A comparative study of vegetable oil methyl esters (biodiesels)

In the present study, rubber seed oil, coconut oil and palm kernel oil, which are locally available especially in Kerala (India), are chosen and their transesterification processes have been investigated. The various process variables like temperature, catalyst concentration, amount of methanol and reaction time were optimized. Biodiesel from rubber seed oil (with high free fatty acid) was produced by employing two-step pretreatment process (acid esterification) to reduce acid value from 48 to 1.72 mg KOH/g with 0.40 and 0.35 v/v methanol-oil ratio and 1.0% v/v H₂SO₄ as catalyst at a temperature of 63(±2) °C with 1 h reaction time followed by transesterification using methanol-oil ratio of 0.30 v/v, 0.5 w/v KOH as alkaline catalyst at 55(±2) °C with 40 min reaction time to yield 98-99% biodiesel. Coconut oil and palm oil, being edible oils, transesterification with 0.25 v/v methanol-oil ratio, 0.50% w/v KOH as at 58(±2) °C, 20 min reaction time for coconut oil and 0.25% v/v methanol-oil ratio, 0.50% w/v KOH as alkaline catalyst at 60(±2) °C for palm kernel oil will convert them to 98-99% biodiesel. The brake thermal efficiency of palm oil biodiesel was higher with lower brake specific fuel consumption, but rubber seed oil biodiesel(ROB) showed less emission (CO and NO_x) compared to other biodiesels.     

Biodiesel from cotton seed oil and its effect on engine performance and exhaust emissions

The use of biodiesel is rapidly expanding around the world, making it imperative to fully understand the impacts of biodiesel on the diesel engine combustion process and pollutant formation. Biodiesel is known as the mono-alkyl-esters of long chain fatty acids derived from renewable feedstocks, such as, vegetable oils or animal fats, for use in compression ignition engines. Different parameters for the optimization of biodiesel production were investigated in the first phase of this study, while in the next phase of the study performance test of a diesel engine with neat diesel fuel and biodiesel mixtures were carried out. Biodiesel was made by the well known transesterification process. Cottonseed oil (CSO) was selected for biodiesel production. Cottonseed is non-edible oil, thus food versus fuel conflict will not arise if this is used for biodiesel production. The transesterification results showed that with the variation of catalyst, methanol or ethanol, variation of biodiesel production was realized. However, the optimum conditions for biodiesel production are suggested in this paper. A maximum of 77% biodiesel was produced with 20% methanol in presence of 0.5% sodium hydroxide. The engine experimental results showed that exhaust emissions including carbon monoxide (CO) particulate matter (PM) and smoke emissions were reduced for all biodiesel mixtures. However, a slight increase in oxides of nitrogen (NO_x) emission was experienced for biodiesel mixtures.     

Biodiesel preparation from Jatropha oil catalyzed by KF/Red mud catalyst

Biodiesel preparation from Jatropha oil catalyzed by KF/Red mud (KF/RM) was studied. The optimum values of parameters for preparation of Jatropha oil biodiesel were obtained. The conversion rate of transesterification reached 92.2% under the optimum conditions, and the used KF/RM could be regenerated. Catalyst characterization showed that KOH and KFeF₄ were produced in KF/RM catalyst, which was crucial for the transesterification of Jatropha oil with methanol. Red mud was a good support to prepare KF-loaded catalyst, and prepared KF/RM was an excellent catalyst for biodiesel synthesis from Jatropha oil via transesterification reaction.     

Performance evaluation of artificial neural network coupled with generic algorithm and response surface methodology in modeling and optimization of biodiesel production process parameters from shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) nut butter

This work investigated the potential of shea butter oil (SBO) as feedstock for synthesis of biodiesel. Due to high free fatty acid (FFA) of SBO used, response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to model and optimize the pretreatment step while its conversion to biodiesel was modeled and optimized using RSM and artificial neural network (ANN). The acid value of the SBO was reduced to 1.19 mg KOH/g with oil/methanol molar ratio of 3.3, H₂SO₄ of 0.15 v/v, time of 60 min and temperature of 45 °C. Optimum values predicted for the transesterification reaction by RSM were temperature of 90 °C, KOH of 0.6 w/v, oil/methanol molar ratio of 3.5, and time of 30 min with actual shea butter oil biodiesel (SBOB) yield of 99.65% (w/w). ANN combined with generic algorithm gave the optimal condition as temperature of 82 °C, KOH of 0.40 w/v, oil/methanol molar ratio of 2.62 and time of 30 min with actual SBOB yield of 99.94% (w/w). Coefficient of determination (R²) and absolute average deviation (AAD) of the models were 0.9923, 0.83% (RSM) and 0.9991, 0.15% (ANN), which demonstrated that ANN model was more efficient than RSM model. Properties of SBOB produced were within biodiesel standard specifications.     

Alkaline-catalyzed transesterification of Silurus triostegus Heckel fish oil: Optimization of transesterification parameters

The present work reports the production of biodiesel from Silurus triostegus Heckel fish oil (STFO) through alkaline-catalyzed transesterification by using potassium hydroxide (KOH) as an alkaline catalyst with methanol. Chemical and physical properties of the extracted oil were determined. It was found that STFO has a low acid value (1.90 mg KOH/g oil); hence no pre-treatment such as acid esterification is required to produce the biodiesel. The influence of the experimental parameters such as KOH concentration (0.25–1.0% w/w of oil), methanol to oil molar ratio (3:1, 6:1, 9:1 and 12:1), reaction temperature (32, 45 and 60 °C), reaction duration (30, 60, 90 and 120 min), type of the catalyst (potassium or sodium hydroxide) and step multiplicity (single- and two-step transesterification) on the yield of the biodiesel were investigated. The maximum biodiesel yield (96%) was obtained under the optimized parameters of the transesterification (KOH 0.50% w/w, 6:1 methanol to oil, at 32 °C for 60 min). The properties of the produced biodiesel were found to conform with the ASTM standard, indicating its suitability for internal combustion engines. Blending of the produced biodiesel with petro diesel with various volume percentages was investigated as well.     

Methyl ester of peanut (Arachis hypogea L.) seed oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production

The peanut (Arachis hypogea L.) seed oil was extracted from the seeds of the peanut that grows in SE Anatolia of Turkey. Oil was obtained in 50 wt/wt.%, by solvent extraction. Peanut (A. hypogea L.) seed oil was investigated as an alternative feedstock for the production of a biodiesel fuel. Biodiesel was prepared from peanut by transesterification of the crude oil with methanol in the presence of NaOH as catalyst. A maximum oil to ester conversion was 89%. The viscosity of biodiesel oil is nearer to that of petroleum diesel and the calorific value is about 6% less than that of diesel. Peanut seed oil have about 8.3% less heating value than that of diesel oil due to the oxygen content in their molecules. The quality of biodiesel is most important for engine part of view and various standards have been specified to check the quality. The important properties of peanut oil and its methyl ester (biodiesel) such as density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, iodine number, neutralization number, pour point, cloud point, cetane number are found out and compared to those of no. 2 petroleum diesel, ASTM and EN biodiesel standards. The comparison shows that the methyl ester has relatively closer fuel properties to diesel than that of raw peanut seed oil.     

Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) oil for preparation of biodiesel: Optimization of conditions

Opium poppy, Papaver somniferum L., is one of the ancient herbal medicines. In addition to this medical use of latex, opium that is extracted from the immature seed capsule, it is also used illegally for pleasure. It is being produced in great quantities in Turkey especially in Afyonkarahisar city. The seeds of opium poppy plant have high ratio oil content. The opium poppy seeds and oil of these seeds are purely used as an ingredient in production of bakery products. In this study, biodiesel evaluation of the opium poppy seeds that have a high oil ratio is aimed. Alkali catalyzed (NaOH) single-phase reaction was preferred to produce biodiesel from opium poppy oil. The parameters like catalyst concentration, methanol ratio, reaction temperature were optimized and biodiesel production was obtained with high yield in reaction time of 75 min. The methyl ester content in the opium poppy oil biodiesel was determined with Gas Chromatography–Frame Ionized Detector (GC–FID). In optimum conditions, methanol ratio and catalyst concentration was determined as 20 wt% and 0.5 wt%, respectively. The reaction temperature was optimized as 60 °C. Biodiesel was obtained from the opium poppy oil under optimum conditions. Some basic features of the produced methyl esters were determined.     

Biodiesel production from Cedrus deodara oil in different types of ultrasonic reactors and energy analysis

This paper deals with the production of biodiesel using vegetable oil, extracted from Deodar (Cedrus deodara) in various types of ultrasonic reactors. The biodiesel so produced is tested for its property and stability. Biodiesel yield is optimized as a function of reaction time for various ultrasonic reactors. The biodiesel production through the triple-frequency flow cell ultrasonic reactor is found the most energy efficient when compared to other types of ultrasonic reactors. Biodiesel so produced from deodar oil is stable under atmospheric conditions with its various physicochemical properties within the range of acceptable limits of the diesel engine.     

Pretreatment of yellow grease for efficient production of fatty acid methyl esters

Biodiesel is a renewable fuel comprised of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) derived from vegetable oils or animal fats. Comparisons between biodiesel and petroleum-based diesel have shown biodiesel to be effective in reducing exhaust emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. While there are advantages of biodiesel over the traditional petroleum based diesel, biodiesel commercialization is limited by production cost that is dominated by the price of the feedstock (soybean oil). Yellow grease has the potential to be an effective feedstock with lower cost, but the chemical composition of these oils is variable depending on the source of collection and differs from that of virgin oil due to the presence of free fatty acids (FFA). Esterification has been previously demonstrated to reduce the FFA levels of YG; however, large quantities of methanol were required to drive the reaction to high yield. Methanol usage for processing and FFA content are the main factors affecting the economics of FAME production from YG. In this study, the relationship between composition and process variables was systematically studied. The effect of FFA ranging from 2% to 32% (w/w) was studied at three different molar ratios of methanol to FFA (4.5:1, 9:1, 18:1) and was found to have a non-linear relationship. Data obtained from this full factorial screening was used to develop a predictive statistical model to forecast the conversion based on initial FFA level and proportion of alcohol applied for esterification.     

Production of biodiesel from food processing waste using response surface methodology

The optimum conditions for biodiesel production by the transesterification of waste oil form the pork grilling process in the food factory in Udon Thani, Thailand, using NaOH and KOH as catalysts, has been investigated. A Box–Behnken Design (BBD) followed by a Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with 30 runs was used to assess the significance of three factors: the methanol to oil molar ratio, the amount of NaOH and KOH used, and the reaction time required to achieve the optimum percent fatty acid methyl ester (%FAME). The measured %FAME following transesterification using NaOH as a catalyst was an optimum 95.6% with a methanol to oil molar ratio of 12.2:1, a NaOH percentage mass fraction of 0.49% and a reaction time of 63 min. Using KOH as a catalyst, the %FAME was an optimum 93.0% with a methanol to oil molar ratio of 12:1, a KOH percentage mass fraction of 0.61% and a reaction time of 72 min. The coefficient of determination (R²) for regression equations were 98.55% and 93.99%, respectively. The probability value (P<0.05) demonstrated a very good significance for the regression model. The physicochemical properties of the biodiesel obtained from the waste oil met the ASTM 6751 biodiesel standard, illustrating that waste oil from the pork grilling process can be used as a raw material for biodiesel production by transesterification.     

Transesterification reaction for biodiesel production from soybean oil using Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanomagnetic catalyst: Kinetic study

Biodiesel was successfully produced by transesterification process of soybean oil and methanol using Ni_0.5Zn_0.5Fe₂O₄ nanomagnetic catalyst. The Ni_0.5Zn_0.5Fe₂O₄ catalyst was synthesized by the combustion method and its properties were investigated using X-ray diffraction, N₂ physisorption at 77 K, Fourier transform infrared analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and a transmission electron microscopy. The performance of catalyst was investigated during transesterification reaction for fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) production. FAMEs were studied by gas chromatography technique. The effect of reaction conditions such as molar ratio of methanol/soybean oil, catalyst amount, reaction temperature, and reaction time on FAMEs yield was also evaluated. The biodiesel yield of 92.1% was obtained under the following reaction conditions: 9:1 of methanol/soybean oil molar ratio and, 2% of catalyst loading at 180°C in 3 hours. Furthermore, the energy of activation (E_a) was 67.4 kJ.mo1⁻¹ and the pre-exponential factor (k_o) was 8.35 × 10⁴ L mol⁻¹ min⁻¹ determined using Arrhenius equation.     

Intensification of continues biodiesel production process using a simultaneous mixer- separator reactor

Nowadays, Biodiesel as an alternative, sustainable and less toxic fuel has been accepted by both researchers and industry. Developing process intensification reactors with the aim of reaching more efficient process has captured the attention of many researchers recently. In order to examine a novel reactor for biodiesel production using Waste Cooking Oil as a cost-effective feedstock, and KOH as an efficient homogeneous catalyst, the present study was developed to investigate three effective parameters (Oil flow rate, catalyst concentration and reaction temperature) focusing on transesterification reaction yield in the Simultaneous Mixer-Separator (SMS) reactor, designed and fabricated exclusively for biodiesel production at Tarbiat Modares University (TMU). As the findings indicated, rising the flow rate presented an increasing trend up to 15 mL/min and a decreasing trend was found after this level. Also, catalyst concentration up to 1% w/w showed an increasing trend which was significant. Analysis of reaction temperature showed that at 60^°C the maximum yield is obtained. Furthermore, 15 mL/min oil flow rate, 1% w/w KOH concentration and 60^?C were selected as the optimal reaction conditions for continuous biodiesel production. At this point, the produced biodiesel followed by the purification step reached the yield of 96%. The produced biodiesel physicochemical properties were found to meet ASTM D6751 standard. All in all, continuous production capability, higher productivity, simultaneous separation of products, and the successful handling of waste resources distinguish the SMS reactor as a potential and efficient process intensification reactor.     

Optimization of conditions for the extraction of phorbol esters from Jatropha oil

The production of Jatropha curcas seeds as a biodiesel feedstock is expected to reach 160 Mt by 2017. The present study aims at extracting phorbol esters (PEs) as a co-product from Jatropha oil before processing it to biodiesel. The conditions were optimized for extraction of PEs in organic solvents by using a magnetic stirrer and an Ultra turrax. The extent of reduction in PEs was >99.4% in methanol using any of the stirring tools. However, the extraction using Ultra turrax affected considerably the colour of the remaining oil. Therefore, further solvent:oil ratio, time and temperature were optimized using a magnetic stirrer to get PE rich fraction-I (48.4 mg PEs g^?1) and virtually PE-free oil. PEs were 14 fold higher in this fraction than the control oil. PEs, extracted in methanol from the untreated Jatropha oil, at 1 mg L^?1 produced 100% mortality in snails (Physa fontinalis). The methanol extract from virtually PE-free oil when concentrated 20 and 25 time the untreated Jatropha oil (equivalent of 20 mg L^?1 and 25 mg L^?1 PEs in the control oil) was nontoxic to snails. PE rich fraction-I, obtained as a co-product, can be used in agricultural, medicinal and pharmaceutical applications and the remaining oil can be used for biodiesel preparation. The remaining oil will be friendly to the environment and workers.     

Biodiesel production from Calophyllum inophyllum oil using lipase producing Rhizopus oryzae cells immobilized within reticulated foams

Biodiesel production from non-edible Calophyllum inophyllum linn oil with high levels of Free Fatty Acid (FFA) (acid value −6.732 mg KOH/g of oil) was investigated using whole-cell biocatalysts. Rhizopus oryzae cells immobilized within reticulated polyurethane foams were used as biocatalysts for biodiesel production. The effects of reaction parameters such as methanol-to-oil molar ratio, water content, and temperature for the production of biodiesel through methanolysis in a packed-bed reactor (PBR) were studied. Molar ratio of methanol-to-oil – 12:1, water content – 15%v/v, cell concentration – 20% and temperature 35 °C were found to be the optimum. The yield of biodiesel obtained in batch methanolysis from C. inophyllum oil under optimized condition was 92%. Long-term stability of immobilized cells for methanolysis was verified using re-usability studies.