"Near and far": social distancing in domiciled characterisations of homeless people

For domiciled individuals, homeless people provide a disturbing reminder that all is not right with the world. Reactions to seeing homeless people frequently encompass repulsion, discomfort, sympathy and sometimes futility. This paper considers domiciled constructions of homeless people drawn from interviews with 16 participants recruited in the central business district of a New Zealand city. It documents how, when trying to make sense of this complex social problem, domiciled people draw on shared characterizations of homeless people. The concept of "social distance" is used to interrogate the shifting and sometimes incongruous reactions evident in participant accounts. "Social distancing" is conceptualised as a dynamic communal practice existing in interactions between human beings and reflected in the ways that domiciled people talk about their experiences with homeless individuals.     

Psychological distress and homeless duration*

We examine whether psychological distress levels vary with homeless and housed duration. We do this using longitudinal data from a national survey of persons facing housing insecurity that, unlike prior studies, is not restricted to those who are currently homeless (or to particular subsets of the homeless), but instead follows a nationally representative sample of Australians experiencing housing insecurity. This allows us to use methods that isolate the effects of changes in time spent homeless and time spent housed on psychological distress holding constant all unobserved person-specific effects that are time invariant. We find that the relationship between psychological distress and homelessness varies by gender and by type of homelessness. Males recently experiencing literal homelessness (i.e. sleeping rough or in crisis accommodation) exhibit the highest levels of distress, but consistent with the adaptation hypothesis, distress levels decline as homeless duration increases. This pattern is not seen when examining a broader notion of homelessness for males. Likewise, there is no clear pattern with regard to homeless duration for females.     

Counting the homeless in Malta

There are no visible signs of homelessness in Malta similar to what can be seen on the streets of many North American or European cities, yet there are few hundred homeless who stay in shelters and another few thousand households that are at risk of being homeless. Malta has a comparatively sizeable social housing sector (9000–10,000) and approximately 3300 households on its waiting list. There is, however, no official recognition of homelessness, no definition and thus, no program to alleviate the problem—the problem is hidden under the façade of strong family ties, community cohesion and the benevolent state. This paper has two major objectives: (1) an attempt to define and suggest a framework in counting the homeless in Malta; (2) identify and examine major contributing factors to homelessness in Malta. Although the study suggests some contributing factors, the task of establishing causal relationships between possible sources of homelessness and actual homelessness is outside the scope of this preliminary study. This study concerns only with the section of the larger homeless spectrum, namely those who stay in temporary shelters. The article indicates general features, interpreting from the existing information, which is indicative rather than conclusive. In addition to information collected from government and non-governmental institutions, the study benefits from data collected through in-depth interviews from two homeless shelters. Although, the quantitative data is small and more cases would be needed to give an appropriate overview, it is hoped that the two issues that are identified (domestic violence and children in homes) would generate discussion. Furthermore, it is hoped that the ideas of “spectrum” and segmentation can be shown to be useful in facilitating collection of data and identification of possible sources of homelessness in Malta and in other culturally similar EU countries. The result of the small sample puts forward some issues and raises some others regarding the change in traditional family structure, the role of the state and how public policy is formed, particularly in Malta.     

Rationing housing to the homeless applicant

Local authority housing departments have rationing systems where demand for public housing outstrips supply and the homelessness legislation, Housing Act 1985 Part III, is the formal method of rationing housing to the homeless applicant. Little has been noted about the ways in which housing may be rationed to the homeless although the issue of access to housing through homelessness has been brought to the forefront of debate by the DOE consultation document. This paper considers formal and informal methods of rationing housing to the homeless applicant. Rationing by eligibility rules, withholding information, deterrence, delay and dilution are discussed together with the use of discretion in the rationing process.     

The digitization of advice and welfare benefits services: re-imagining the homeless user

Abstract

Digitization is transforming the way in which people in England access advice and welfare benefits. Face-to-face advice provision is being increasingly replaced by telephone and online services, whilst the online application and management of benefit claims have become mandatory within the introduction of Universal Credit. This paper argues that the current shift to digitization fails to recognize the variation and complexity surrounding homeless people’s use of technology, with homeless people as technology users often placed into homogenizing categories. Based on findings from qualitative interviews and observations carried out with homeless people and voluntary sector organizations, this paper discusses the social and contextual factors affecting homeless people’s use of technology for advice and benefit purposes. The paper highlights the need for a more nuanced understanding of homeless people’s use of technology.     

The experience of homeless women: An exploration of housing histories and the meaning of home

The exploratory study with homeless women presented in this paper aims to highlight two shortcomings in the current literature on homelessness, which accompany the predominant conceptualisation of ‘home’ as a place of safety and security, and homelessness as a primarily structural issue characterised by ‘residential instability’. The first is the paucity of research on homeless women in their own right and the second the lack of studies which examine underlying reasons for residential instability from homeless women's own perspectives. An intensive, small sample interview study was carried out with 12 regular women users of a day centre for homeless people (Brighton, south of England). They were asked about their patterns of residence, reasons for moving, definitions of ‘house’, ‘home’, and ‘ideal home’, and they gave their housing histories in some detail. In a quantitative analysis, their patterns of moving and definitions of ‘home’ were compared to those of a group of securely housed women. Number of moves was comparable in both groups, but for the homeless women the majority of moves had been made to avoid abuse and social services relocations. Whilst all of the securely housed women could confidently define a difference in meaning between a ‘house’ and a ‘home’, only 3 of the 12 homeless women did. They equated ‘home’ with safety and security, the same terms used in the literature to define what housing means, and the two most salient features largely absent in homeless women's experience of housing. The meaning of home is further explored in a qualitative analysis, where the themes of safety and security—or rather their absence in abusive relationships—are traced through the homeless women's childhood, adolescence and adulthood. These exploratory findings question an easy equation between ‘residential instability’ and homelessness, and highlight the need to investigate further the reasons why women leave housing, and the relationship this has to an understanding of what ‘home’ means. Whilst current formulations suggest that the homelessness of women is a problem, and housing the solution, this study suggests that housing is the problem—homelessness may well be a solution.     

The drivers of high health and justice costs among a cohort young homeless people in Australia

Abstract

Our study utilizes Australian survey evidence to estimate the heath and justice costs of a cohort of young homeless people. Health and justice costs for young homeless people are highly skewed with median costs well below mean costs. This is particularly true of justice costs resulting from a relatively high proportion of young homeless people having no interaction with the justice system. Having a diagnosed mental health condition is a primary driver of both health and justice costs. Having been homeless or sleeping rough in the previous year is associated with approximately four times mean health and justice costs compared with not having experienced homelessness. High justice costs are associated not only with having a diagnosed mental health condition homelessness and rough sleeping, but also a high-risk of dependence on one or more drugs or alcohol, identifying as Indigenous and a history of out-of-home care before the age of 18.     

Activity spaces of homeless men and women measured by GPS tracking data: A comparative analysis of Prague and Pilsen

The aim of this article is to investigate the factors that influence the size of activity spaces of homeless men and women in cities. Vulnerable population groups such as the homeless face the risk of mobility challenges that can exacerbate their social exclusion even more through mobility-driven spatial exclusion. The extent of an individual's activity space is a key precondition for the daily coping strategies and life opportunities of homeless people. This study is the first to combine GPS tracking of homeless people based on a week-long GPS measurement with mobility interviews. The article tests five hypotheses as to the influence of city size, age, gender, housing situation and education on the size of activity space. Data obtained for a large city (Prague) and for a small city (Pilsen) are analysed using three geospatial measurements of activity spaces. In line with mixed-method approaches, the results are further triangulated through mobility interviews. By mapping the objective activity spaces, we were able to evaluate the role of individual and contextual factors in shaping homeless life and discuss the theoretical and practical implications of activity space measurement for social policy and urban planning.     

Whose choice,hostels or homes? Policies for single homeless people

A marked increase in the prevalence of homelessness among single people has coincided with a renewed debate concerning the nature of the problem and the most appropriate policy response. The paper provides a brief discussion of these developments before presenting the key findings of a study of the closure of Alvaston Resettlement Unit, near Derby. These findings relate primarily to white men, but the paper considers what they indicate about the experiences, wants and needs of single homeless people in general. In particular, the study revealed an enormous diversity in lifestyles and aspirations which suggests that the ‘good‐housekeeping’ model of resettlement may often be inappropriate. The paper calls for a pluralistic approach which recognises an important role for direct access hostels.     

Urban homeless shelters in India: Miseries untold and promises unmet

An urban shelter is designed to offer refuge to homeless people and access to basic services like drinking water, sanitation and safety. This research paper aims to critically appraise condition of such shelters, vis-à-vis common services mandated to be provided at each shelter by the Supreme Court of India. A survey of shelters was conducted in four cities of Uttar Pradesh (viz., Allahabad, Varanasi, Lucknow and Agra) spanning a sample of 426 shelter-inmates. Analysis has been done in two stages: evaluation of common services on the basis of their significance as perceived by inhabitants, and assessment of significant services to check their availability and functionality. Factor analysis has clubbed nineteen such services under five factors (named as: entitlement to schemes, hygiene & recreation, cooking support system, ambience, and drinking water & conservancy). Findings reveal large scale unavailability of services and bring to light the appalling condition of shelters in the cities surveyed. This study may be useful in framing a focused policy for providing shelters to homeless people in urban areas by identifying services considered significant by inmates and ensuring availability of such services.     

Chaotic,fluid and unstable: an exploration of the complex housing trajectories of homeless people in Flanders,Belgium

This article analyses the housing and homeless pathways of (ex)homeless persons in the coastal city of Ostend. After a short review of the literature on the causes and meaning of the vulnerability of homeless persons, we describe how our case study with (former) homeless persons in Ostend was organised. We deal with some methodological issues and the analytic results, revealing a very complex housing trajectory. We focus on these dynamic and complex housing pathways and look at the role of relationships and relationship breakdown, work and unemployment, eviction after rent arrears and moving as an escape strategy. We also deal with the searching process for housing and the role of social networks. We end with some conclusions and interest points for policy.     

International year of shelter for the homeless: Activities and achievements

The United Nations General Assembly, by proclaiming 1987 as the International Year of Shelter for the Homeless (IYSH), launched a new major initiative to stimulate effective action at the national and international levels to improve the shelter conditions of the homeless, the poor and the disadvantaged throughout the world. Responsibility for organizing and coordinating the activities for the Year was entrusted to the Commission on Human Settlements at the intergovernmental level, and the the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, UNCHS (Habitat), at the secretariat level. The launching of the Year coincided with severe economic constraints in the developing countries which dampened hopes for achieving the goals and objectives of IYSH. Yet during the period from 1983 to the end of 1987 many governments made new commitments to ameliorate the inadequate shelter conditions of the poor and took serious steps towards adopting new or revised strategies and policies to that end. The organizations in the United Nations system, multilateral financial institutions, bilateral aid agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) responded positively to the challenges posed by the IYSH programme and contributed in many ways to the achievement of its objectives.     

Housing Homeless People: Local Mobilization of Federal Resources to Fight NIMBYism

Local sentiments are rarely favorable to human service facilities. City governments and neighborhood organizations frequently utilize zoning restrictions to exclude various community facilities, including services and housing for homeless people. This exclusionary phenomenon is commonly referred to as “not‐in‐my‐backyard” or “NIMBYism.” The power of NIMBYism is grounded in the local autonomy afforded municipalities concerning land use policies. However, recent cases suggest that the tradition of local authority over certain types of land uses is being reexamined and, even more frequently, challenged at the extra‐local level. Given this trend, the purpose of this article is to question the assumption that local government will be able to preserve their authority over housing for homeless people. Using a case study of a local zoning battle over a proposed housing development for homeless people, the author argues that recent changes in the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development’s governance over Fair Housing Law enforcement and administration of Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance funding, coupled with the agency’s more aggressive position on housing discrimination, may already have changed the balance of power on this issue. By examining the process by which a non‐profit organization in Albany, New York, was able to reach a settlement with the city concerning a zoning denial by mobilizing federal resources, the author attempts to highlight a possible emerging federal role in facilitating local mobilization against NIMBYism as it applies to housing for homeless individuals.     

On the relation between origin income and migration

While traditional migration theory suggests that the rate of migration is negatively related to income at the origin, many empirical studies of aggregate migration yield a non-significant or even a positive relation. This paper utilizes a simplified model of migration to demonstrate that one possible reason for such results is the imperfect capital market facing migrants. Higher average income at the origin may imply a higher number of individuals who have the cash resources to finance migration, thus generating a positive relation between regional income and migration. The conclusions suggest the use of non-linear specifications in empirical migration studies.The views expressed in this paper are the author's; they do not represent those of the World Bank or its affiliated institutions.     

Housing First: Considering Components for Successful Resettlement of Homeless People with Multiple Needs

‘Housing First’ programmes in the US involve the provision of mainstream scatter sited permanent housing at the initial stage of support for homeless individuals with multiple needs. This is in contrast to dominant approaches (in the US and Europe) that assert the need for successful progress towards treatment goals (usually whilst living in temporary congregate accommodation) prior to resettlement. Evaluations of Housing First indicate, however, that even those considered farthest from being housed can, with help, successfully maintain a mainstream tenancy of their own. It is asserted here that one locally based agency managing both the housing and assertively providing holistic non time-limited support packages may be important factors in the success rate of Housing First programmes. However, a caveat is added—to robustly assess the effectiveness of Housing First (and homelessness policy per se) requires continued consideration as to what ‘success’ refers to in the resettlement of formerly homeless people.     

‘It's just like we're going around in circles and going back to the same thing …’: The Dynamics of Women's Unresolved Homelessness

The condition of long-term homelessness has been demonstrated to affect a far smaller number of individuals compared with those who exit and become housed. It is nonetheless a pressing policy concern because of the high social and economic costs associated with prolonged homelessness. As with much homelessness research generally, gender is not adequately addressed, and frequently ignored, within analyses of ‘long-term’ or ‘chronic’ homelessness. This paper seeks to redress this imbalance and examines the experiences of women who have lengthy homeless histories based on the accounts of 34 women who are participants in a larger biographical study of homeless women in Ireland. Women's movements into and out of homeless service settings are examined in some detail, as are their accounts of the lived experience of prolonged homelessness. Their narratives reveal their mothering roles and identities, intimate relationships and intimate partner violence, and their ongoing interactions with institutional settings, including homeless hostels, as key dynamics influencing their movements and the strategies used by them as they attempt to manage their homelessness. We conclude by highlighting several gender-specific forces driving the women's experiences of unresolved homelessness. A number of key messages for policy are also discussed.     

Breaking the cycle of homelessness: Housing stability and social support as predictors of long-term well-being

It is increasingly acknowledged that homelessness involves more than just being without a house. Indeed, more recent definitions of what constitutes a home highlight the role of social connections and support (including, for example, access to space to engage in social relations). This study examined the role of secure housing and social support as predictors of psychological well-being of individuals following a period of homelessness. Using linear mixed models for longitudinal data, we investigated how changes in social support predicted changes in individuals’ self-reported personal well-being, life satisfaction and mood following a period of homelessness (n = 119), controlling for housing status, alcohol use and employment status. The results showed that remaining homeless predicted poorer personal well-being, life satisfaction and mood. In addition, changes in social support predicted well-being over and above housing stability. Implications of findings for policy and practice in the homeless sector are discussed.     

Publications Received

Problem: At present, homelessness in the United States is primarily addressed by providing emergency and transitional shelter facilities. These programs do not directly address the causes of homelessness, and residents are exposed to victimization and trauma during stays. We need an alternative that is more humane, as well as more cost-efficient and effective at achieving outcomes.

Purpose: This article uses research on homelessness to devise alternative forms of emergency assistance that could reduce the prevalence and/or duration of episodes of homelessness and much of the need for emergency shelter.

Methods: We review analyses of shelter utilization patterns to identify subgroups of homeless single adults and families with minor children, and propose alternative program models aimed at the particular situations of each of these subgroups.

Results and conclusions: We argue that it would be both more efficient and more humane to reallocate resources currently devoted to shelters. We propose the development of community-based programs that instead would focus on helping those with housing emergencies to remain housed or to quickly return to housing, and be served by mainstream social welfare programs. We advocate providing shelter on a limited basis and reserving transitional housing for individuals recently discharged from institutions. Chronic homelessness should be addressed by permanent supportive housing.

Takeaway for practice: Changing existing shelter-based responses to homeessness could produce better outcomes for homeless individuals and families.

Research support: None.     

From encampments to hotspots: the changing policing of homelessness in New York City

Abstract

This article examines a shift in language and enforcement around homeless dwellings in New York City that occurred in 2015. Amidst a rising tide of anti-homeless sentiment, city officials and police department administrators switched from calling such dwellings ‘encampments’ to ‘homeless hotspots’, which were defined as anywhere with two or more homeless people in public space. Using data from city policy memos, interviews with homeless people, ethnographic fieldwork with a homeless-led organization, and data from the city’s 311 user-driven complaint system, this article argues that in practice, the shift to hotspots demonstrates the relational geography of homelessness. Selective enforcement of the visible ‘homeless hotspot’ took place in recently-gentrified neighbourhoods, suggesting that the idea of a homeless hotspot itself and the financialized home are co-produced and co-dependent, created through one another. This relational geography, in turn, sheds light on the pervasiveness of anti-homelessness, force that changes with political winds but retains its power in producing borders and boundaries of urban space.