Polymorphic stability of hydrogenated canola oil as affected by addition of palm oil

Palm oil was added to canola oil before and after hydrogenation and the effect of this addition on the polymorphic stability of the hydrogenated oils was investigated. Palm oil was added to canola oil at two levels to produce hydrogenated canola and palm oil blends containing 5 and 10% palm oil. The levels of palm oil added to hydrogenated canola oil were 5, 10 and 15%. Samples were subjected to temperature cycling between 5 and 20°C as well as storage at 5°C up to 56 days. X-ray diffraction and polarized light microscopy were used to follow the changes of polymorphic form and crystal growth, respectively, during cycling and storage. Theβ-crystal contents of the oils were quantified based on the relative density of the characteristic short spacings using a Soft Laser Scanning Densitometer. The delaying effect of palm oil on phase transition was observed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry. Palm oil showed no effect on the polymorphic stability of the temperature cycled selectively hydrogenated oil, however, it delayed the transition rate at a constant temperature of 5°C. Addition of palm oil at the 10% level before hydrogenation and the level after hydrogenation proved to be effective in delaying polymorphic instability of nonselectively hydrogenated canola oil. Theβ′ stabilization effect of palm oil on the polymorphic stability of hydrogenated canola oil is most likely due to a decrease of fatty acid chain length uniformity.     

Crystallization characteristics of hydrogenated canola oil as affected by addition of palm oil

Addition of palm oil at levels of 5, 10 and 15% to selectively and nonselectively hydrogenated canola oil increased the time of isothermal crystallization at 20°C and delayed the appearance of the isothermal crystallization peak as determined by DSC. The degree of supercooling was also increased. Addition of palm oil to canola oil before selective or nonselective hydrogenation decreased the time of the appearance of the isothermal crystallization peak. Rates of crystallization were determined in selectively hydrogenated canola palm oil mixtures which followed first order kinetics.     

Ammonia volatilization from urea as affected by the addition of iron pyrites and method of application

Laboratory incubations were conducted to determine the ammonia (NH₃) loss from urea as affected by the addition of coarse and ground (fine) pyrites at 1:1, 1:2 and 1:5 urea: pyrite (w/w) ratios and methods of application (surfaceapplication, incorporation and placement). Coarse pyrites (>-2mm) were not effective in reducing NH₃ loss from urea when surface applied even at the highest ratio of pyrite (15.9% vs 18.7% without pyrite). Ground pyrites (0.1–0.25 mm), in 1:1 ratio, had about 5% less NH₃ loss than the urea alone treatment. Higher ratios of pyrites reduced NH₃ loss much more. Ammonia losses were the most with surface-applied urea (18.9%) and the least (13.5%) when placed (2.5 cm) below the soil surface. Addition of ground pyrite to surface-applied urea (1:1 ratio) decreased the loss to 13.2%. Urea+pyrite placed below the soil surface had the least loss (9.8%). Results indicate that combined application of urea and fine pyrite could reduce NH₃ loss.     

Filtration-extraction of flaxseed as affected by preparation variables

Summary The data presented show that the filtration-extraction process can be applied to the extraction of oil from flaxseed. General conditions for preparing the material and for extraction have been established. Adequate comminution, cooking, and crisping yielded materials having necessary characteristics for the successful application of the filtration-extraction process. Mass velocities in excess of 2,000 and residual lipides contents below 1% were obtained when these materials were slurried and extracted at slightly elevated temperatures (130°F.). The conditions of rolling had an appreciable effect upon the efficiency of extraction of flaxseed. One pass through five-high rolls with clearances of 0.002 in., 0.002 in., 0.002 in., and 0.000 in. between respective rolls proved satisfactory. Apparent optimum cooking moisture levels for efficient oil extraction fall between 17 and 24% maximum initial, and 8.0 to 10.5% as discharged from the cooker. Mass velocities were significantly lowered when maximum initial cooking moisture contents were below 14% since at these moisture levels it becomes necessary to reduce the moisture content to below 8%, as discharged from the cooker, to achieve suitable cooking. At these low moisture levels crisping by evaporative cooling is not effective. The versatility of the filtration-extraction process, which had been previously adapted to the extraction of oil from cottonseed, soybeans, sesame seed, peanuts, and rice bran, has been extended, with some minor but important modifications in the preparation and extraction conditions, to the extraction of oil from flaxseed. Presented at the fall meeting of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 10–12, 1955. One of the laboratories of the Southern Utilization Research Branch, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.     

Hydrogenation of canola oil as affected by chlorophyll

Chlorophyll was added to refined and bleached canola oil before hydrogenation, and the effects on hydrogena-tion rate, fatty acid composition and the percentagetrans isomers were determined. The hydrogenation rate was greatly slowed down by chlorophyll under selective (200 C and 48 kPa) and nonselective conditions (165 C and 303 kPa). Higher levels of chlorophyll reduced the reaction rate more than the lower levels under both conditions. Dropping points were slightly higher for the nonselectively hydrogenated samples than for the selectively hydrogenated ones. Addition of 1 mg/kg or more chlorophyll decreased the solid fat content under nonselective conditions. Addition of chlorophyll reduced thetrans isomer content under nonselective conditions. Nonselective conditions also resulted in a greater decrease of 18:3 and faster production of 18:0 than selective conditions at all levels of chlorophyll addition.     

Nanofluidization as affected by vibration and electrostatic fields

In this paper we investigate the behavior of a fluidized bed of silica nanoparticles under the influence of externally applied vibrations and an electrostatic field. We have observed that the application of these fields separately has opposite effects on bed expansion. On one hand, vertical vibrations enhance bed expansion as the vibration intensity is increased up to a critical value. On the other hand, an electrostatic field applied in the horizontal direction, hinders bed expansion. In previous research papers, it has been suggested that the size of nanoparticle agglomerates could be affected either by vibration or by the action of the electric field. Using the modified Richardson-Zaki method to analyze our experimental data we find that vertical vibration tends to decrease the average agglomerate size in agreement with previous research. However, in this work we look further into the physical mechanisms which affect the response of the fluidized bed. Our results suggest that both vibration and the electric field produce a significant perturbation to the flow of agglomerates within the fluidized bed. Vibration transmits a vertical motion to the agglomerates that enhances bed expansion until the vibration velocity becomes of the order of the expected rising velocity of macroscopic bubbles. At this critical point, bubble growth is stimulated by vibration. A horizontal electrostatic field produces a drift of the charged agglomerates toward the walls that gives rise to fluidization heterogeneity and bed collapse. When both fields are simultaneous applied, these opposed effects can be practically compensated.     

Nutritional qualities of soya protein as affected by processing

The nutritional qualities of soybean proteins are basically determined by amino acid patterns, amino acid availabilities (digestibility) and contents of biologically active components. Of these factors, the last two are most affected by processing conditions, whereas amino acid analysis is least affected, although it too may be modified in those cases in which soybean proteins are fractionated. In the preparation of the large variety of soya products presently available, soybeans are subjected to many different processes, all of which are discussed. Heat treatment appears to be the process which most affects protein nutritional quality; generally, quality first increases with heat treatment due to inactivation of biologically active factors, passes through a maximum and then decreases due to destruction and/or inactivation of essential amino acids such as cystine and lysine. Other processes affect protein nutritional quality to different degrees, inasmuch as they affect amino acid analysis, digestibility and content of biologically active components. When soybean proteins are used to extend animal proteins, supplement other vegetable proteins, or in vegetable protein mixtures, nutritional quality of the combined proteins appears to be affected in the same manner as that of soya proteins alone.     

Continuous solid-state fermentation as affected by substrate flow pattern

The performance of continuous solid state bioreactors having two different solid substrate flow patterns, namely plug flow and completely mixed flow, is quantified for both steady-state and transient operation using a simple mathematical model. The core assumption is that each substrate particle acts as an infinitesimal bioreactor. The residence time distribution of the particles is considered in the formulation of the equations for the mixed-flow bioreactor and the error that results from neglecting it is investigated by comparing the simulation results with those of a completely mixed, continuous bioreactor for submerged liquid fermentation (a chemostat). The model is extended to include autolysis, inter-particle inoculation and contamination. Plug flow is shown to have superior performance when high product concentration is needed, if autolysis or other undesirable late emerging phenomena occur, and when non-sterile fermentation using slow-growing microorganisms is undertaken.     

Cotton root growth as affected by P fertilizer placement

Growth chamber studies were conducted to evaluate root growth and P uptake by cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) as affected by the proportion of the soil volume that is treated with fertilizer P. Cotton seedlings were grown in a Dewey silty clay loam (Typic Paleudult) and a Marvyn loamy sand (Typic Paleudult). The Dewey soil had a low-P status and the Marvyn soil had a high-P status (7 and 44 mg kg^–1 Mehlich I extractable P, respectively). Phosphorus was added at a constant or base rate which was added to decreasing proportions of the soil volume (i.e. 1.0, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.125). The addition of the same amount of P to decreasing proportions of the soil volume resulted in a stimulation of root growth in the P-fertilized soil volume relative to the nonfertilized soil. The degree of stimulation was similar for the two soils which differed in P status. Phosphorus uptake reached a maximum when 0.25 and 0.50 of the soil volume was treated with P on the Marvyn and Dewey soils, respectively.     

Buffalo meat composition as affected by different cooking methods

Buffalo meat is considered in Italy as an alternative product for its good nutritional characteristics. The influence of three cooking methods (boiling, grilling and frying) on the chemical and lipid composition of buffalo meat was evaluated. All the treatments reduced the moisture and increased protein, ash and fat content. The increase in fat content was higher after frying due to the incorporation of fat from olive oil. Fried meat had lower saturated fatty acid content due to the incorporation of mono-unsaturated (C18:1) fatty acids from oil. The incorporation of oil fatty acids caused a decrease in conjugated linoleic acid relative content. Moreover, fried meat showed the highest levels of the unhealthy trans fatty acids. Therefore, frying was shown as the worst cooking methods regarding human health. Boiling and grilling increased thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, while frying had no effect on them.     

Application of power addition as modelling technique for flow processes: Two case studies

In many of the continuum processes typically found in chemical engineering, the functional dependency of the dependent variable is only known for large and small values of the independent variable. Exact solutions in the transitional regime are often obscure for various reasons (e.g. narrow band within which the transition from one regime to the other occurs, inadequate knowledge of the physics in this area, etc.). An established method for the matching of limiting solutions is reviewed and subsequently applied. The method regards the known solutions as asymptotes and proposes addition to a power of such asymptotes. It yields a single, adjustable correlating equation that is applicable over the entire domain. This procedure circumvents the introduction of ad hoc curve fitting measures for the different regions and subsequent, unwanted discontinuities in piece-wise fitted correlative equations for the dependent variables. Experimental data of two diverse processes, namely flow in a straight-through diaphragm valve and the fluidisation of a packed bed, are analysed as case studies. Empirical results are investigated for possible asymptotic bounds whereafter power addition is applied to the functional dependencies. The outcome is compared to those of the empirical models and the results discussed. The procedure is revealed to be highly useful in the summarising and interpretation of experimental data in an elegant and simplistic manner. It may also, in general, aid the setup of experimental apparatus for investigation of continuum processes.     

Softening temperature of glassy polymers as affected by residual stresses

Heat deflection temperature and Vicat softening point of polystyrene and polymethylmethacrylate with various thermal histories were measured. Surface residual stresses were characterized by liquid crazing. Residual stress profiles across the sample thickness were also measured. It is suggested that the softening behavior of glassy polymers is affected by the state of the residual stresses in addition to the traditionally accepted free volume approach.     

Incorporation of urea in puddled rice soils as affected by tillage implements

Thorough incorporation of urea into the soil is known to reduce the high N losses associated with the traditional practice of broadcasting urea onto puddled lowland rice fields. Few studies have, however, examined the effectiveness of farm-level implements for incorporating broadcast urea during final land preparation in small rice fields. A field experiment was conducted at two sites in the Philippines to compare the effectiveness of several commonly available and experimental tillage implements for basal incorporation of urea. The relative effectiveness of N incorporation and relative susceptibility of N to ammonia volatilization losses were assessed from floodwater (urea + ammoniacal)-N and partial pressure of ammonia (pNH₃) following urea application to puddled, unplanted soil.Conventional water buffalo- and single axle tractor-drawn comb harrows were equally, but only partially, effective in reducing floodwater (urea + ammoniacal)-N andpNH₃ by 42 to 56% of the values for broadcast prilled urea (PU) without incorporation. Removal of the comb harrow from the single axle tractor did not reduce the effectiveness of PU incorporation, indicating that the cagewheel rather than the comb harrow was largely responsible for fertilizer incorporation. An experimental conical puddler was slightly more effective than the conventional comb harrow. The movement of transplanters through the field did not effectively incorporate PU. A power weeder, frequently used by researchers to incorporate fertilizer in small experimental plots, was less effective than traditional comb harrows, reducing floodwater (urea + ammoniacal)-N by only 35%. No tillage implement for incorporating urea reducedpNH₃ as effectively as did the liquid urea band injector.Results suggest that sizeable losses of fertilizer N still occur following incorporation of PU with tillage implements commonly used by small rice farmers. Considerable scope remains for the improvement of fertilizer incorporation in puddled rice soils.     

Effectiveness of recycled P products as P fertilizers, as evaluated in pot experiments

World phosphorus (P) resources are limited and may be exhausted within 70?C175 years. Therefore recycling of P from waste materials by chemical or thermal processes is important. This study evaluated the effectiveness of recycled P products from sewage sludge and animal wastes as P fertilizer. Four products were obtained from chemical processes, three magnesium-ammonium-phosphates (MAP) of different sewage treatment plants and a Ca phosphate precipitated from wastewater (Ca-P) and four from thermal processes, an alkali sinter phosphate (Sinter-P), a heavy metal depleted sewage sludge ash (Sl-ash), a cupola furnace slag made from sewage sludge (Cupola slag) and a meat-and-bone meal ash (MB meal ash). The effectiveness of these products as P fertilizers compared with triple superphosphate (TSP) and phosphate rock (PR) was determined in a 2-year pot experiment with maize (Zea mays L., cv. Atletico) in two soils with contrasting pH (pH(CaCl₂) 4.7 and 6.6). The parameters used to evaluate the effectiveness were P uptake, P concentration in soil solution (C_Li) and isotopically exchangeable P (IEP). MAP products were as effective as TSP in both soils, while Ca-P was only effective in the acid soil. Sinter-P was as effective as TSP in the acid soil, while Cupola slag was in the neutral soil. The products Sl-ash and MB meal ash were of low effectiveness and were comparable to PR. The effect of the fertilizers on IEP, but not on C_Li, described their effectiveness. Recycled P products obtained by chemical processes, especially MAP, could be directly applied as P fertilizers, while products such as Sl-ash and MB meal ash are potential raw materials for P fertilizer production.     

Oxidation of single-walled carbon nanotubes in dilute aqueous solutions by ozone as affected by ultrasound

A clean and simple wet chemical process using dilute aqueous ozone (O₃) solution with or without ultrasound (US) was used to functionalize single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). Both O₃ and O₃/US treatments greatly increased the stability of SWCNTs in water. Results of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) showed that the surface oxygen to carbon atomic ratio increased by more than 600% after 72 h of O₃ treatment. Moreover, the effective particle size of SWCNTs was reduced from the initial 4400 to ∼300 and ∼150 nm, after 24 h of O₃ and O₃/US treatment, respectively. The zeta potential of treated SWCNTs decreased from 3.0 to −35.0 mV (at pH 4) after 2 h of treatment with both O₃ and O₃/US. Based on the XPS results, the oxidation pathway was proposed: at the onset of the oxidation reaction, the CC double bond was first converted to COH which was then oxidized to CO and OCOH concurrently. Oxidation reactions could be described well with first order expressions. Treatment time controlled the extent of surface oxidation and subsequently the stability and dispersion of SWCNTs in water.     

Characteristics of lignin from flax shives as affected by extraction conditions

Lignin, a polyphenolic molecule, is a major constituent of flax shives. This polyphenolic molecular structure renders lignin a potential source of a variety of commercially viable products such as fine chemicals. This work compares the performance of different lignin isolation methods. Lignin from flax shive was isolated using both conventional alkaline extraction method and a novel experimental pressurized low polarity water (PLPW) extraction process. The lignin yields and chemical composition of the lignin fractions were determined. The conventional alkali treatment with 1.25 M NaOH, heated at 80 °C for 5 h, extracted 92 g lignin per kg flax shives, while lignin yields from the PLPW extracts ranged from 27 to 241 g lignin per kg flax shives. The purity and monomeric composition of the lignins obtained from the different extraction conditions was assessed via UV spectroscopy and alkaline nitrobenzene oxidation. Lignin obtained from conventional alkali treatment with 1.25 M NaOH, heated at 80 °C for 5 h was of low purity and exhibited the lowest yields of nitrobenzene oxidation products. With respect to alkali assisted PLPW extractions, temperature created an opposing effect on lignin yield and nitrobenzene oxidation products. More lignin was extracted as temperature increased, yet the yield of nitrobenzene oxidation products decreased. The low yield of nitrobenzene oxidation products may be attributed to either the formation of condensed structures or the selective dissolution of condensed structures of lignin during the pressurized alkaline high temperature treatment. Analytical pyrolysis, using pyroprobe GC-MS, was used to investigate the molecular composition of the lignin samples. The total yield of pyrolysis lignin products was 13.3, 64.7, and 30.5% for the 1.25 M NaOH extracted lignin, alkaline assisted PLPW extracted lignin, and the unprocessed flax shives, respectively. Key lignin derived compounds such as guaiacol, 4-vinyl guaiacol, 4-methyl guaiacol, syringol, eugenol, isoeugenol, catechol, homocatechol, and vanillin were detected in all of the samples.     

Chemical retardation of phosphate diffusion in an acid soil as affected by liming

The retention of phosphate (P) in soil limits its mobility through bothdiffusion and mass flow. Soil P retention is a complex reaction with aluminum(Al) and iron (Fe) playing major roles in P retention in acid soil. This studyexamined the one-dimensional diffusion of applied phosphate andwater-extractable Al in a gibbsite-rich acid soil as affected by liming. Thesoil used was a loamy sand, a Typic Hapludox (US Taxonomy), obtained from asite150 km south of Perth, Australia. Soil was limed at 5 gkg^–1 to raise the soil pH from 5.5 to 7.1.KH₂PO₄ was applied to the surface of unlimed and limedsoil columns, which were then incubated in a constant humidity chamber for 3,7,14 and 28 d. Water-extractable P (WE-P) concentration in the surface ofunlimed soil (0 to 0.2 cm) increased from 0 in the original soilto22.3 mol g^–1, 3 d after the Papplication. However, the WE-P decreased with incubation period to a value of9.7 mol g^–1 on day 28. Similar WE-Pconcentration patterns were observed with the limed soil, but the WE-Pconcentration near the surface decreased to a much lower value under limed (7.6mol g^–1) than unlimed (9.7 molg^–1) conditions. Liming also reduced P diffusion. After28 d of incubation P diffused to a depth of 2.1 cmin the unlimed soil, but to only 1.5 cm under the limedsoil.Acid-extractable P (AE-P) also increased from 0 to 50 molg^–1 in the surface soil layer for both unlimed and limedsoil as a result of P fertilizer application. There was little change in theAE-P for both treatments from day 3 of incubation to day 28. The pH and Al andFe concentrations in the soil solution were elevated near the soil surfacewhereK and P ions interacted with soil matrices. Liming significantly reduced thetotal amount of WE-P and P diffusive movement in the soil, but reduced Altoxicity since Al ions shifted to less toxic species with increases in pH. Pfertilizer application also increased soil pH under both unlimed and limedconditions. This would reduce Al toxicity, benefiting crop production.     

Photooxidation of soybean oils as affected by triacylglycerol composition and structure

The photooxidation of soybean oil was determined and correlated with triacylglycerol composition and structure. Purified triacylglycerols were photooxidized at room temperature under fluorescent light. Rates of peroxide formation and total headspace volatiles were related positively (P<0.5 significance) to oxidizability (r=0.75, r=0.76); content of linolenic acid (r=0.80, r=0.85) and linoleic acid (r=0.61, r=0.57); linoleic acid on carbon 2 (r=0.64, r=0.64); and average number of double bonds (r=0.76, r=0.76). Negative correlations were observed with respect to oleic acid (r=−0.70, r=−0.70). Soybean oil stability was decreased by linolenic acid-containing triacylglycerols and increased by oleic acid-containing triacylglycerols. Trilinoleoylglycerol and dilinoleoyl-oleoylglycerol were the most important oxidation product precursors. However, for high-linolenic acid soybean oil, dilinoleoyl-linolenoylglycerol and trilinoleoylglycerol were the most important oxidation product precursors. The most abundant volatile produced from thermal decomposition at 140°C of photooxidized triacylglycerols was 2-heptenal, except for high-linolenic acid oils, where the most abundant volatile was propanal. The photooxidative stability of soybean oil triacylglycerols with respect to composition and structure is of interest for the development of soybean varieties with oils of improved odor and flavor stability. Presented at the 20th ISF World Congress 83rd Annual American Oil Chemists’ Society Meeting, May 10–14, 1992, Toronto, Canada.     

Fabric properties of butadienediepoxide-treated cottons as affected by liquid ammonia pretreatments

Effects of liquid ammonia and mercerizing-strength caustic as pretreatments upon textile properties of cotton sheeting modified with butadienediepoxide (BDO) catalyzed by 2% and 15% NaOH were compared. Tensile properties of the NaOH-mercerized control (CM) (celluloses I and II) greatly exceeded those of native (cellulose I) and ammonia-treated (NH₃) controls. NH₃(I) and NH₃(III) are those cottons having the cellulose I and mixed cellulose I and III lattices, respectively. Resistance to flex abrasion was doubled by pretreatments. Wrinkle recoveries of all controls were equivalent, but tensile recovery differed. BDO reaction enhanced wrinkle recovery of controls but produced the usual losses in tensile properties and resistance to flex abrasion associated with crosslinking reagents. BDO reaction nullified the initial tensile advantage held by CM cotton. Tear strengths of all BDO-treated cottons remained comparable. High dry and high wet recoveries were obtained only when 2% NaOH catalyzed the BDO reaction and were greatest for NH₃ cottons. BDO reaction reduced permanent set of all controls and increased tensile recovery primarily by enlarging the delayed recovery. Postmercerization with 23% NaOH adversely affected recovery behavior of all BDO-treated cottons. Nevertheless, wrinkle and tensile recoveries of postmercerized NH₃(I) and CM cottons were equivalent. Postmercerization partially restored fabric properties of BDO cottons with cellulose I lattice to those of their respective controls; no change was noted for corresponding products from CM cottons. Because of this, final properties of products from NH₃(I) cottons equaled and even exceeded those of comparable CM cottons.