Prospective reciprocal relations between physical activity and depression in female adolescents.

Objective: Although an inverse correlation between physical activity and depression among adolescents has been found in research, this relation has seldom been examined prospectively. Thus, we tested whether physical activity reduces risk for future escalations in depression and whether depression decreases likelihood of future change in physical activity. Method: Data from a longitudinal study involving annual assessments of 496 adolescent girls (mean age = 13 years, SD = 0.73) followed over a 6-year period were analyzed to address these questions. Results: Using analyses that controlled for several covariates, we found that physical activity significantly reduced risk for future increases in depressive symptoms and risk for onset of major–minor depression. Further, depressive symptoms and major–minor depression significantly reduced future physical activity. However, predictive effects were modest for both. Conclusions: Results support a bidirectional relation between exercise and depression and imply that interventions that increase physical activity may reduce risk for depression among this high-risk population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between sports participation and self-esteem during early adolescence.

The main purpose of the present study was to examine the links between sports participation and self-esteem, with particular interest in the possible mediating role of physical self-esteem. The participants in this study were 382 students (167 boys; 215 girls) in Grades 5-8. Participants completed a series of paper and pencil measures, detailing their sports participation, as well as their self-perceptions concerning physical and general self-esteem. Sports participation was related to all indices of self-esteem and this was equally true for boys and girls. Two distinct but related factors were identified as components of physical self-esteem (Physical appearance and Physical competence), differentially associated with self-esteem for boys and girls. Results supported a mediational model, with physical self-esteem mediating the relationship between sports participation and general self-esteem. Significant sex differences were noted with regard to specific indices of physical self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exercise and diet interventions improve perceptions of self in middle-aged adults

The effect of a 1-year exercise and diet intervention program on global self-concept, perceptions of the body, physical competence, exercise mastery, social competence, social comfort, and fitness was examined with 208 healthy individuals (191 males, 17 females) aged 39-49 years (mean age 44.9) with elevated risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The relative utility of the skill development versus the self-enhancement model of the self-concept/behaviour relationship was tested. The participants were randomized into four groups: diet (n = 53), diet and exercise (n = 64), exercise (n = 48) and no active intervention (n = 43). Measurements were made by the Harter adult self perception profile (HASPP) and the self-perception in exercise questionnaire (SPEQ). Two-way ANOVA analyses revealed that exercise participation, with or without diet, enhanced self-perceptions of physical mastery and ability, body perception, fitness and social comfort. The unique contribution of diet indicated enhanced body perception. No effect was found of diet or exercise on global self-concept. Exercise participation had a positive effect on perceptions of the self, and the higher the compliance with the exercise program, the stronger were the effects on the self-perceptions. This supported the skill development model of the self-concept/behaviour relationship. As the pretest self-concept scores did not predict exercise compliance, the self-enhancement model of the self-concept/behaviour relationship was not supported.     

Childhood obesity, gender, actual-ideal body image discrepancies, and physical self-concept in Hong Kong children: Cultural differences in the value of moderation.

Childhood obesity is increasingly prevalent in Western and non-Western societies. The authors related multiple dimensions of physical self-concept to body composition for 763 Chinese children aged 8 to 15 and compared the results with Western research. Compared with Western research, gender differences favoring boys were generally much smaller for physical self-concept and body image. Objective and subjective indexes of body fat were negatively related to many components of physical self-concept, but-in contrast to Western research-were unrelated to global self-esteem and slightly positively related to health self-concept. In support of discrepancy theory, actual-ideal discrepancies in body image were related to physical self-concept. However, consistent with the Chinese cultural value of moderation, and in contrast to Western results, being too thin relative to personal ideals was almost as detrimental as being too fat. The results reflect stronger Chinese cultural values of moderation and acceptance of obesity than in Western culture and have implications for social and educational policy in China. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Athletic classmates, physical self-concept, and free-time physical activity: A longitudinal study of frame of reference effects.

The systematic analysis of factors that promote or impede physical activity in children is an urgent task for educational researchers. The present study investigated the reciprocal relationship between physical self-concept, teacher-assigned grades in physical education classes, and free-time physical activity, and analyzed positive and negative consequences of being in a class with high class-average physical ability. Data from a large, representative sample of 1,095 preadolescents from 66 classrooms were examined within a longitudinal framework. Multilevel analyses showed that membership in a class with high class-average physical ability was associated with lower physical self-concept and free-time physical activity and highlighted the significant role of teacher-assigned grades in the development of physical self-concept and physical activity. Furthermore, as predicted, there were positive reciprocal effects between physical self-concept and physical activity levels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological adjustment of adolescents attempting to lose or gain weight.

The psychological adjustment of high school boys and girls who were trying to reduce or gain weight was compared in a large sample. Reducers of both sexes and male gainers exhibited lower physical self-esteem. Girls who were trying to change weight in either direction showed depression and lower global self-esteem, but male reducers and gainers did not differ on these measures. Restraint Scale scores for girls were predicted by body image, weight variables, depression, and social anxiety; restraint for boys was predicted by body image and weight variables only. Thus, the psychological correlates of weight-changing efforts are more extensive in girls. The adolescent's decision to gain or lose weight may be brought on by his/her psychological adjustment as well as by the prevailing social pressure. Alternately, a weight-change attempt may be a risk factor for psychopathology, especially for girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A developmental overview of child and youth sports in society

This article provides a brief review of sport participation for children and adolescents from psychological, physical, and social developmental perspectives. The following areas are reviewed: the relationship between normal developmental readiness and sporting participation; the potential positive and negative aspects of athletic participation for the child and adolescent; the effects of sporting participation on self-concept; potential adverse physical and psychological effects; recent research regarding motivation for youth sports participation; proposed recommendations for guidelines in youth sport programs; a social perspective on sports in the United States; the current and future role of child and adolescent psychiatrists; and future challenges for sport psychiatry.     

Childhood physical abuse, internalized homophobia, and experiential avoidance among lesbians and gay men.

This study explored relations among childhood physical abuse, internalized homophobia, experiential avoidance, and current psychological symptoms in a community sample of 122 adult lesbians and 115 adult gay men. Childhood physical abuse predicted depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Furthermore, for gay men, internalized homophobia completely mediated the relation between childhood physical abuse and depression symptoms and partially mediated the relation between childhood physical abuse and PTSD symptoms. However, experiential avoidance did not mediate these relations. In contrast, experiential avoidance partially mediated the relation between childhood physical abuse and PTSD symptoms among lesbians; however, internalized homophobia did not mediate these relations. These findings suggest that internalized homophobia and experiential avoidance may have differential mediating roles in predicting psychological symptoms among lesbians and gay men who have experienced childhood physical abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

BDNF genotype moderates the relation between physical activity and depressive symptoms.

Objective: To test whether the BDNF gene interacts with exercise to predict depressive symptoms. Physical activity is associated with a range of positive health outcomes, including fewer depressive symptoms. One plausible mechanism underlying these findings involves Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), a protein hypothesized to limit or repair the damage caused by stress. Physical activity increases expression of BDNF, which may enhance brain health. BDNF expression is controlled by the BDNF gene. Compared with individuals without a BDNF met allele, met-allele carriers have a lower expression of BDNF, which has been associated with Major Depressive Disorder. Design: Eighty-two healthy adolescent girls were genotyped for the BDNF val66met polymorphism, and their depressive symptoms and physical activity were assessed using questionnaires. Main Outcome Measures: BDNF genotype, Children’s Depression Inventory, and the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children and Adolescents. Results: The BDNF polymorphism was found to moderate the relation between exercise and depressive symptoms: being physically active was protective for girls with a BDNF met allele (fewer depressive symptoms) but not for girls with the val/val polymorphism. Conclusion: By integrating psychological and biological factors, the present study enhances our understanding of how physical activity contributes to resilience to psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vocational self-concept crystallization and vocational indecision.

A. Korman (1966, 1967, 1970) and D. E. Super (1963) have developed theoretical models to explain the processes underlying the relationship between self-esteem and vocational decisional status. These models differ in their predictions regarding the vocational self-concept crystallization of high and low self-esteem persons. The relationship between vocational self-concept crystallization and global self-esteem (as measured by the Total Positive Scale of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale) was investigated using 102 undergraduates as Ss. A significant difference was found for both sexes in the degree of crystallization across self-esteem levels, thereby supporting Super's model over Korman's. Support was found, however, for the basic assumption of Korman's model that high self-esteem individuals perceive themselves as competent, need-satisfying decision makers to a greater degree than low self-esteem individuals. The absence of any sex effects is discussed in relation to career development theories in general. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical status as a moderator of depressive symptoms among older adults with dual sensory loss.

Objective: This study evaluated the ability of three measures of physical status—physical activity, physical condition, and body mass index (BMI)—to moderate the relationship between dual sensory loss (DSL) and depressive symptoms in older adults. Method: Nationally representative longitudinal data were used to develop multilevel models predicting depressive symptoms among two groups of older adults, 1380 who developed DSL during the study and 1308 without sensory loss. Results: All three measures were associated with depressive symptoms for persons who had or would develop a DSL: participation in physical activity and being in better physical condition were associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms, while lower BMI levels were associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms. All moderator variables had a larger effect for persons with DSL as compared to persons without sensory loss. Implications: The implication of these findings is that participation in a regular program of physical activity may provide multiple benefits to older persons with DSL. Families and health care providers can offer support for being physically active by ensuring the person has the best possible correction for the sensory losses, providing encouragement, and/or providing physical assistance with exercise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult attachment security and symptoms of depression: The mediating roles of dysfunctional attitudes and low self-esteem.

Three studies investigated the relation between adult attachment security and symptoms of depression. Study 1 examined the overall magnitude of the association between adult attachment and depression, and Studies 2 and 3 tested whether this relation was mediated by dysfunctional attitudes and low self-esteem. Results from the three studies were consistent with a mediation model. This model suggests that insecure adult attachment styles are associated with dysfunctional attitudes, which in turn predispose to lower levels of self-esteem. Such depletions in self-esteem are directly associated with increases in depressive symptoms over time. Insecure attachment appears to lead to depressive symptoms in adulthood through its impact on self-worth contingencies and self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cost of good fortune: When positive life events produce negative health consequences.

Previous research regarding the effects of positive life events on physical health has been inconclusive. We tested the hypothesis that positive life events have a detrimental effect on health only among people with negative self-views. This prediction derives from an identity disruption model of stress, which holds that an accumulation of life events that are inconsistent with the self-concept leads to physical illness. To test the hypothesis, we conducted 2 prospective studies in which positive life events and self-esteem were used to predict the development of illness over time. In accordance with predictions, both studies showed that desirable life changes were associated with increases in illness only among Ss with low self-esteem; among Ss with high self-esteem, positive life events were linked to better health. Implications for understanding the manner in which life events affect health are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intimate partner violence and preschoolers' explicit memory functioning.

This research examines whether parents' intimate partner physical violence (IPV) relates to their preschoolers' explicit memory functioning, whether children's symptoms of hyperarousal mediate this relation, and whether mothers' positive parenting moderates this relation. Participants were 69 mothers and their 4- or 5-year-old child (34 girls). Mothers completed measures of IPV, children's hyperarousal symptoms, parent-child aggression, and positive parenting. Measures of explicit memory functioning were administered to preschoolers. As expected, IPV correlated negatively with preschoolers' performance on explicit memory tasks, even after controlling for parent-child aggression and demographic variables related to preschoolers' memory functioning. Preschoolers' hyperarousal symptoms did not mediate the relation between IPV and explicit memory functioning, but mothers' positive parenting moderated this relation. Specifically, the negative relation between IPV and preschoolers' performance on 2 of the 3 explicit memory tasks was weaker when mothers engaged in higher levels of positive parenting. These findings extend research on IPV and children's adjustment difficulties to explicit memory functioning in preschoolers and suggest that mothers can ameliorate the influence of IPV on preschoolers' memory functioning via their parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent–child attitude congruence on type and intensity of physical activity: Testing multiple mediators of sedentary behavior in older children.

Objective: This study examined parent–child attitudes on value of specific types and intensities of physical activity, which may explain gender differences in child activity, and evaluated physical activity as a mechanism to reduce time spent in sedentary behaviors. Design: A community sample of 681 parents and 433 children (mean age 9.9 years) reported attitudes on importance of vigorous and moderate intensity team and individually performed sports/activities, as well as household chores. Separate structural models (LISREL 8.7) for girls and boys tested whether parental attitudes were related to child TV and computer via child attitudes, sport team participation, and physical activity, controlling for demographic factors. Main Outcome Measures: Child 7-day physical activity, sport teams, weekly TV, computer. Results: Parent–child attitude congruence was more prevalent among boys, and attitudes varied by ethnicity, parent education, and number of children. Positive parent–child attitudes for vigorous team sports were related to increased team participation and physical activity, as well as reduced TV and computer in boys and girls. Value of moderate intensity household chores, such as cleaning house and doing laundry, was related to decreased team participation and increased TV in boys. Only organized team sports, not general physical activity, was related to reduced TV and computer. Conclusion: Results support parents’ role in socializing children’s achievement task values, affecting child activity by transferring specific attitudes. Value of vigorous intensity sports provided the most benefits to activity and reduction of sedentary behavior, while valuing household chores had unexpected negative effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Barriers to physical activity in an on-site corporate fitness center.

Many corporations provide employees the option of participating in on-site fitness centers, but utilization rates are low. Perceived barriers to physical activity have been established as important correlates of physical activity, and recent research indicates that barriers may vary across settings. Work-site fitness centers may present unique barriers to participation, but there are currently no standardized measures that assess such barriers. Eighty-eight employees of a midwestern corporation completed a survey designed to identify and evaluate the extent to which barriers influence participation in an on-site corporate fitness center. Regression analyses revealed that external environmental barriers (e.g., inadequate exercise facilities) significantly accounted for not joining the fitness center, and for decreased duration of visits to the facility among members. Internal barriers (e.g., feeling embarrassed to exercise around coworkers) significantly accounted for frequency of fitness center visits among members. This corporate specific measure may lead to more effective interventions aimed to increase use of on-site corporate fitness centers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A transactional model of adolescent self-esteem.

Adolescents (51 boys, 53 girls), 11 to 15 years old, and their mothers participated in a study to test a transactional model of self-esteem (TMS). The TMS proposes that self-esteem results from complex transactions among individual characteristics, cognitions, and behaviors of adolescents and parents. Structural equation models were used to examine direct and indirect effects of mothers' depressive symptoms and adolescent behavior problems on perceptions of each other, behaviors toward each other, and adolescent self-esteem. Measures included self-reports and ratings by teachers and observers. As hypothesized, there were direct paths to global self-esteem from adolescents' specific self-perceptions and mothers' positive communications, whereas paths from maternal depressive symptoms and adolescent behavior problems to self-esteem were indirect, mediated by mothers' perceptions and behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of systematic physical fitness training combined with counseling on the self-concept of college students.

Three groups of 40 college students were each given different treatments in an experiment designed to investigate the effect of systematic physical fitness training combined with counseling on measured self-concept. One experimental group received a fitness program consisting of flexibility training and systematic distance running; a 2nd group received the same physical training plus 1 hr/wk of group counseling designed to reinforce progress made in the fitness program; and a 3rd group (control) received no physical fitness training or counseling. After a 10-wk program, the group receiving fitness training and running made a significant gain in self-concept as measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. The Ss were divided into low and high self-concept groups for statistical analysis. It was found that the students who received fitness training and counseling and had low self-concepts on the pretest measure made significant positive changes in self-concept. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive symptoms among physically abused and psychiatrically disturbed children.

Examined the relation of physical abuse and depressive symptoms among 79 6–13 yr old child psychiatric inpatients. Childhood depression, hopelessness, and self-esteem were assessed through questionnaire or interview measures administered to the children. 79 25–52 yr old mothers or maternal guardians also completed measures to evaluate their children's dysfunction. As predicted, the 33 physically abused children, compared with the 46 nonphysically abused patient controls, evinced significantly lower self-esteem and greater depression and negative expectations toward their futures. Among abused children, those with both past and current abuse showed more severe symptoms of depression that did those with either past or current abuse only. The differences in depressive symptoms between abused and nonabused children could not be accounted for by differences in child psychiatric diagnosis, age, race, gender, IQ, or severity of psychopathology or parent psychiatric diagnoses, marital, or SES. Results suggest that physical abuse, at least for a psychiatric patient sample, is related to symptoms of depression. The possible basis for this relation and the treatment implications are discussed. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Body-image and eating disturbances predict onset of depression among female adolescents: A longitudinal study.

This study examined data from a 4-year school-based longitudinal study (n?=?1,124), to test whether the increase in major depression that occurs among girls during adolescence may be partially explained by the body-image and eating disturbances that emerge after puberty. Elevated body dissatisfaction, dietary restraint, and bulimic symptoms at study entry predicted onset of subsequent depression among initially nondepressed youth in bivariate analyses controlling for initial depressive symptoms. Although the unique effect for body dissatisfaction was not significant in the multivariate model, this set of risk factors was able to fairly accurately foretell which girls would go on to develop major depression. Results were consistent with the assertion that the body-image- and eating-related risk factors that emerge after puberty might contribute to the elevated rates of depression for adolescent girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)