Asking questions changes behavior: Mere measurement effects on frequency of blood donation.

Objective: This research examined the impact of completing a questionnaire about blood donation on subsequent donation behavior among a large sample of experienced blood donors. Design: Participants (N = 4672) were randomly assigned to an experimental condition that received a postal questionnaire measuring cognitions about donation or a control condition that did not receive a questionnaire. Main Outcome Measures: Number of registrations at blood drives and number of successful blood donations were assessed using objective records both 6 months and 12 months later. Results: Findings indicated that, compared to control participants, the mean frequency of number of registrations at blood drives among participants in the experimental group was 8.6% greater at 6 months (p     

Applied tension and blood donation symptoms: The importance of anxiety reduction.

Objective: Despite being a voluntary activity, many blood donors experience anxiety, and fainting (syncope) is not unusual. The muscle-tensing technique applied tension (AT) has been found to be effective in reducing vasovagal symptoms and syncope. A series of studies was developed to investigate the role of AT on anxiety and fainting. Methods: The mechanisms of AT were examined in the laboratory and the blood donor clinic. In Study 1, 70 participants were assigned randomly to either a control group or an experimental group who learned AT before watching a video depicting blood draws. In Study 2, 667 volunteer blood donors completed similar questionnaires. Results: In Study 1, a significant Condition × Sex × Needle Fear interaction, F(1, 59)=4.97, p=.03, indicated that AT reduced vasovagal symptoms in higher-fear women. Study 2 also found a significant Condition × Sex × Needle Fear effect on vasovagal symptoms, F(2, 653)=3.95, p=.02, indicating that AT reduced symptoms but primarily among women with more pronounced fear of needles. Conclusions: Analysis of the physiological data and self-reported anxiety supports the conclusion that the reduction in vasovagal symptoms was due more to decreased anxiety rather than exercise-related cardiovascular change. These results suggest that AT may provide a useful means of coping with invasive medical procedures in part by reducing anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Which survey questions change behavior? Randomized controlled trial of mere measurement interventions.

Objective: Evidence indicates that receiving a questionnaire about a behavior increases the likelihood that the person will perform that behavior—a phenomenon termed the mere measurement effect. This research tested the role of (a) the type of questions, and (b) questionnaire completion in optimizing the impact of mere measurement interventions designed to retain novice blood donors. Design: Novice blood donors (N = 4391) were randomly allocated to four conditions that varied the content of a questionnaire about blood donation (behavioral intention-only, behavioral intention plus regret, implementation intention-only, implementation intention plus regret) or to a no-questionnaire control condition. Main Outcome Measures: Objective measures of registration at blood drives were obtained at 6 and 12 months postbaseline. Results: Participants in the implementation intention-only condition donated more frequently at 6 months compared to participants in each of the other conditions. At 12 months both implementation intention conditions outperformed the other conditions. Implementation intentions increased the frequency of donations over 1 year by 12%. Measuring anticipated regret did not augment the impact of interventions whereas questionnaire completion had an important impact on donation behavior. Conclusion: Questions about implementation intentions but not behavioral intentions promote retention of novice blood donors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Blood donation is an act of benevolence rather than altruism.

Objectives: Blood donation is described as an archetypal altruistic behavior, and recruitment/retention campaigns emphasize altruism. Here, a benevolence hypothesis for blood donation (both the donor and recipient benefit) rather than the altruism hypothesis (only the recipient gains) is proposed. Design: Three United Kingdom-based studies contrasted benevolence and altruism: (a) a 6-month prospective study of blood donor behavior (Study 1: N = 957), (b) a cross-sectional study of blood donors' intentions (Study 2: N = 333), and (c) an experimental study examining the effect of benevolent and altruistic messages on willingness to help across high- and low-cost helping behaviors for committed and noncommitted blood donors (Study 3: N = 200). Main Outcome: Donor behavior and intentions-willingness. Measures: Beliefs in personal and societal benefit (Time 1) and actual donations (Time 2) were assessed in Study 1; beliefs in benevolence, altruism, hedonism, and kinship along with donation intentions were assessed in Study 2; and empathy, donor commitment, and willingness to donate blood, money, fund-raise, and staff a telephone helpline were assessed in Study 3. Results: Beliefs in personal rather than societal benefit predicted actual future donation. A path model showed that only beliefs in benevolence were associated with intentions to donate. Committed blood donors were more willing to donate blood when exposed to a benevolent message rather than an altruistic one. This effect was not observed for other forms of helping. Conclusions: The benevolence hypothesis is supported, suggesting that blood donor motivation is partly selfish. Blood donation campaigns should focus on benevolent rather than purely altruistic messages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accountability and judgment processes in a personality prediction task.

In this experiment, we investigated the impact of accountability—social pressures to justify one's views to others—on cognitive processing in a personality-prediction task. Subjects were presented with the responses of actual test-takers to 16 items from Jackson's Personality Research Form (PRF) and asked to predict how these individuals responded to an additional set of 16 items from the same test. Subjects were assigned to a no-accountability condition (they learned of the need to justify their responses before seeing the test-takers' PRF responses), and a postexposure-accountability condition (they learned of the need to justify their responses after seeing the test-takers' PRF responses). Preexposure-accountability subjects reported more integratively complex impressions of test-takers, made more accurate behavioral predictions, and reported more appropriate levels of confidence in their predictions than did either no-accountability or postexposure-accountability subjects. We conclude by considering possible psychological mediators of these effects as well as the broader theoretical implications of the findings for the development of contingency models of judgment and choice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test of a list procedure for inducing compliance with a request to donate money.

A compliance tactic whereby a target is first shown a list of other compliers and is then asked to comply with a request was examined in 5 field experiments. Exp I with 120 university students showed that this tactic significantly increased the number of donors when they were asked for a money donation. Exps II and III with 60 adults and 60 male students replicated the basic finding for a household population and for a request for a blood donation, respectively. Exp IV with 300 male students varied the number of other donors and the size of their donations and found that Ss' compliance with a request to donate money was affected by these factors. Findings are interpreted as consistent with the expectations derived from the informational social influence hypothesis. Exp V with 90 adults replicated part of Exp IV and suggested that a list effect does not materialize when the norms governing compliance are too strongly violated. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivating blood donors to recruit new donors: Experimental evaluation of an evidence-based behavior change intervention.

Objective: A sustainable, evidence-based intervention to motivate current blood donors to recruit new donors was evaluated using a quasi-experimental, in-service trial at three donation centers. Design: Participating blood donors in three conditions (N = 734), received (1) an evidence-based leaflet designed to enhance recruitment motivation and five postcards facilitating recruitment and donor registration, (2) five postcards alone, or (3) no materials. Main Outcome Measures: Self-reported donor recruitment by donors was measured at 1-week and 6-week follow-up. Results: At 1-week and at 6-week follow-up, donors in both intervention conditions reported talking to more people about donation and asking more people to donate than control participants. Intervention participants also reported persuading more people to register as a donor than control participants. Results indicated that postcards plus leaflet was somewhat more effective than the postcards alone. Donors' intentions to recruit at 1-week follow-up mediated the behavioral effects at 6-week follow-up. Conclusion: Motivating and facilitating recruitment of new blood donors through existing donors has the potential to continually replenish the donor population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How to reduce the prevalence of HIV-positive blood donors

Despite abolishing the policy of giving the results of the serological test as a way to promote blood donation, and also after improving the predonation questionnaire, we still have a high prevalence of HIV positive blood donors. In this paper we try to analyze, interviewing the HIV positive blood donors in our Counselling Clinic from January 1995 to December 1996, why they were accepted. We asked the HIV positive blood donors to fill a form with the following questions: identification, kind and frequency of blood donation, HIV high risk behaviour, awareness of predonation serological status, willingness toward blood donation, awareness of how dangerous the transfusion of HIV contaminated blood is. For the screening we used Abbott HIV1/HIV 3rd generation plus EIA, test and HIV-1 Western Blot Cambridge, Biotest, Worcester MA, for confirmatory assays. During the evaluation period, 53,338 blood donors were attended, 130 (0.24%) were confirmed HIV positive. Only 18/130 (13.84%) assisted to the Counselling Clinic. The mean age was 33.27 +/- 5.35 years old, all males, 15 singles and 3 with stable couples. 6/18 (33.33%) could have been discarded because of physical appearance or because of theirs jobs. "Voluntary Donation" was higher than in the control group (p = 0.0001). Homo/bisexual and promiscuous behaviour (p = 0.0003) were the predominant high risk factors, in this group 55.55% had more than one risk factor. The association with HBV and syphilis was high (p = 0.0001 and p = 0.0005). 5/18 (27.77%) knew they were HIV positive; 3/18 (16.66%) had the suspicion they were HIV positive and 10/18 (55.55%) did not know it; however the risk factors were the same in those groups. In the knew/suspicion group the main reasons for blood donation were: Performing the test once more, 6; failure in the predonation questionnaire, 1; family pressure, 1. In the group that ignored their HIV positivity: ignorance of belonging to a high-risk group, 6; lack of confidence in the interviewer, 3 and failure in the predonation questionnaire, 1. 61.11% knew that the HIV tests were performed on all blood donations and the the positive ones were discarded. No one had knowledge of the window period. CONCLUSIONS: 1. It is necessary to spread more information to the general population about the ways of HIV transmission, the risk factors and its prevention. 2. To make aware all HIV positive or those that suspect they are the HIV positive how dangerous their blood donation could be. 3. Offering the general population a free HIV test and giving the appropriate counselling and support. 4. Improving the questionnaire, assuring that the blood donor could understand the real meaning of the questions and how important his/her truthfulness is. 5. To consider the implementation of the p24 antigen test as mandatory to all blood donations and all the new techniques to avoid HIV transmission. 6. To change the "related" blood donors to the true voluntary, altruistic, blood donor.     

Metacognitive control and strategy selection: Deciding to practice retrieval during learning.

Retrieval practice is a potent technique for enhancing learning, but how often do students practice retrieval when they regulate their own learning? In 4 experiments the subjects learned foreign-language items across multiple study and test periods. When items were assigned to be repeatedly tested, repeatedly studied, or removed after they were recalled, repeated retrieval produced powerful effects on learning and retention. However, when subjects were given control over their own learning and could choose to test, study, or remove items, many subjects chose to remove items rather than practice retrieval, leading to poor retention. In addition, when tests were inserted in the learning phase, attempting retrieval improved learning by enhancing subsequent encoding during study. But when students were given control over their learning they did not attempt retrieval as early or as often as they should to promote the best learning. The experiments identify a compelling metacognitive illusion that occurs during self-regulated learning: Once students can recall an item they tend to believe they have “learned” it. This leads students to terminate practice rather than practice retrieval, a strategy choice that ultimately results in poor retention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Common-sense models of illness: The example of hypertension.

Hypothesized that actions taken to reduce health risks are guided by the actor's subjective or common-sense constructions of the health threat and that illness threats are represented by their labels and symptoms (their identity), their causes, consequences, and duration. These attributes are represented at 2 levels: as concrete, immediately perceptible events and as abstract ideas. Both levels guide coping behavior. 230 patients were interviewed about hypertension, presumably an asymptomatic condition. When asked if they could monitor blood pressure changes, 46% of 50 nonhypertensive, clinic control cases said yes, as did 71% of 65 patients new to treatment, 92% of 50 patients in continuing treatment, and 94% of 65 re-entry patients who had previously quit and returned to treatment. Patients in the continuing treatment group, who believed the treatment had beneficial effects on their symptoms, reported complying with medication and were more likely to have their blood pressure controlled. Patients new to treatment were likely to drop out of treatment if (1) they had reported symptoms to the practitioner at the 1st treatment session, or (2) they construed the disease and treatment to be acute. Data suggest that patients develop implicit models or beliefs about disease threats, which guide their treatment behavior, and that the initially most common model of high blood pressure is based on prior acute, symptomatic conditions. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autologous blood donation prior to anatomical radical retropubic prostatectomy: is it necessary?

OBJECTIVES: To determine if autologous blood donation prior to anatomical radical retropubic prostatectomy, given current improvements in surgical technique, is necessary. METHODS: The medical records of 200 consecutive patients undergoing radical retropubic prostatectomy for clinically localized prostate cancer were reviewed with regard to (1) preoperative hematocrit (HCT); (2) estimated blood loss (EBL); (3) postoperative HCT prior to discharge; (4) number of units of autologous blood donated; and (5) number of units of autologous and homologous blood transfused. In addition, the charges associated with autologous blood donation were determined via telephone interview with 14 blood donation centers across the United States. RESULTS: Overall, 189 patients (95%) did not require a homologous blood transfusion. Sixty-four patients (32%) donated autologous units and 136 patients (68%) did not. Of the patients who had donated, only 17 (27%) received their blood back, and none (0%) received any homologous blood. Eleven (8%) of the 136 nondonors received a blood transfusion. The autologous donors, in comparison with nondonors, were found to have a significantly lower preoperative HCT (mean +/- standard deviation: 40 +/- 4.0% versus 42 +/- 2.9%, P < 0.05). However, there was no statistically significant difference in the mean EBL between the two groups, autologous donors versus nondonors (771 +/- 370 versus 737 +/- 425 cc, P = 0.23). The autologous donors had a smaller mean change in HCT versus the nondonors (-9.3 +/- 5.1% versus -11.2 +/- 4.4%, P < 0.05), reflecting an increased willingness to transfuse patients who have autologous units available. With regard to cost, patients, on average, can expect to be charged as much as $745 per unit of autologous blood donated. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that preoperative blood donation prior to radical prostatectomy may not be necessary, because 95% of the patients did not require a homologous blood transfusion. In addition, autologous blood donation can be associated with substantial costs in both time and money. Thus, autologous donation should be left as an option for the patient and should not be considered routine practice.     

Effect of verbal cues on recognition memory and pleasantness evaluation of unfamiliar odors

The experiment investigated the effect of verbal cues on recognition memory for unfamiliar odors. 58 participants learned 20 odors of chemical substances. The control group learned the odors without accompanying verbal labels whereas two other groups learned the odors with accompanying verbal labels. The labels referred to relatively pleasant or unpleasant odor sources. On a memory test, administered 15 min. and also 1 wk. after the learning phase, participants were asked to recognize 10 learned odors from 10 unlearned odors and to evaluate each odor's pleasantness. Analysis showed (a) the verbal labels did not facilitate recognition of the unfamiliar odors, (b) recognition performance was lower after 1 wk. than after 15 min., and (c) rated pleasantness tended to be affected by the verbal label assigned to the odor in the learning phase.     

Caffeine attenuates vasovagal reactions in female first-time blood donors.

The experience of vasovagal reactions during blood donation (e.g., faintness, dizziness, lightheadedness) can be a deterrent to repeat donation. Because these reactions are associated with decreases in blood pressure, caffeine was examined as a potential modulator of vasovagal reactions by virtue of its pressor effects. Using a randomized, double-blind design, 62 female undergraduate 1st-time blood donors received either 0, 125, or 250 mg of caffeine prior to blood donation. Participants who received 250 mg of caffeine had lower scores on the Blood Donation Reactions Inventory, required fewer interventions by phlebotomists for negative reactions, and reported a greater likelihood of repeat donation than participants who received placebo. These findings suggest that a moderate dose of caffeine attenuates negative reactions in novice female blood donors and may increase the likelihood of repeat donations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Crossing over analysis at pachytene in man

BACKGROUND: The demographics, deferrable risk behaviors, and the prevalence and incidence of viral infections of apheresis (PH) and whole-blood (WB) donors were compared, to characterize these two populations and to evaluate the relative safety of PH and WB donors in terms of transfusion-transmitted viral infections. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A comparison was made of 36,119 PH donors (> or = 1 PH donation) and 1.38 million WB donors (> or = 1 WB donation) in terms of demographics and the prevalence (/100,000 donors) and incidence (/100,000 person-years) of viral infections, by using data collected at five United States blood collection centers between 1991 and 1994. Deferrable risk behaviors were defined as those risk behaviors that would have resulted in donor deferral, had they been reported. The prevalence of deferrable risk behaviors was estimated by using data collected through an anonymous mail survey. RESULTS: PH donors were older and more likely than repeat (2+ donations) WB donors to be female, white, and United States-born and to have a higher degree of education (p < or = 0.001). The prevalence of any viral infection was 50 percent higher in WB donors than in PH donors (p = 0.04), whereas the incidence of HIV, human T-lymphotropic virus, and hepatitis B surface antigen was nonsignificantly higher in WB donors. The prevalence of deferrable risk behaviors did not differ in the two groups. CONCLUSION: Further studies will be needed to evaluate whether the difference in the prevalence of viral infections observed in this study can be explained by demographic characteristics and patterns of donation frequency.     

Self-administered relaxation training and money deposits in the treatment of recurrent anxiety.

Evaluated 2 self-administered relaxation manuals and a money deposit in the treatment of recurrent, nonphobic anxiety in 61 18–44 yr old Ss from a college population. Ss were randomly assigned to a self-monitoring-only control group or 1 of 4 active treatment conditions. Ss in active conditions received a progressive relaxation manual or a manual that called for the client to devise his or her own relaxation method and were assigned to deposit or nondeposit conditions. Improvement did not differ for the 2 relaxation procedures, but relaxation training groups improved significantly more than self-monitoring-only Ss on both self-report questionnaires and self-monitored measures of anxiety. The deposit did not produce greater amounts of relaxation practice or adherence to the program, although Ss in this condition reported being more relaxed in practice sessions and improved more on 2 pre–post measures of anxiety (including the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory). Ss' locus of control scores (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) were significantly related to a number of practice, adherence, and outcome variables, but Ss' ratings of the likelihood that they would practice and benefit from the program proved to be as good predictors. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of material incentives on classroom learning over a four-week period.

Assessed the effects of material incentives on the learning of spelling words in typical classrooms over a 4-wk period. 14 4th grade classes with a total of 330 students participated. Seven classes were randomly assigned to a material incentive condition, and 7 to a normal, or social incentive, condition. Classroom means were used as the unit of analysis. Ss who were offered material incentives learned significantly more spelling words than did Ss not offered material rewards. Ss in the material incentive condition learned an average of about 61/2 new words during each week's lessons; Ss who were offered only social incentives learned an average of about 3 new words during each week. The substantial effects of the material incentives continued throughout the 4 wks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Efficacy of oral iron supplementation is not enhanced by additional intravenous iron during autologous blood donation

BACKGROUND: The study compared the efficacy of oral iron combined with intravenous iron supplementation to that of oral iron supplementation alone in increasing the preoperative production of hemoglobin (Hb) in autologous blood donors with normal iron stores. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: One hundred eight iron-replete patients who were scheduled for donation of 3 units of autologous blood at weekly intervals were randomly assigned to receive, in a double-blind fashion, no iron supplementation (placebo, Group 1), oral iron supplementation (285.6 mg of elemental iron/day, Group 2), or oral iron plus intravenous iron supplementation (285.6 mg of elemental iron/day orally plus 102.5 mg of elemental iron/week intravenously, Group 3). The amount of Hb produced during the 21-day study period was determined by the total amount of Hb donated minus the change in the amount of circulating Hb between the first donation (Day 0) and the poststudy examination (Day 21). RESULTS: Hb production did not differ significantly in the two iron-supplemented groups (oral iron, 85 +/- 36 g; oral plus intravenous iron, 74 +/- 43 g). The patients in the oral iron group produced a significantly greater amount of Hb than those in the placebo group (85 +/- 36 g vs. 52 +/- 41 g, p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Oral iron supplementation increased the production of Hb in autologous blood donors more than placebo did. Additional intravenous iron did not lead to a further increase in preoperative Hb production.     

Getting blood from collective turnips: Volunteer donation in mass blood drives.

Analyzed correlates of volunteer blood donation in 2 separate mass blood drives, based on data from 1,722 university students, 1,080 donors and 642 nondonors. Previous research on blood donor motivation has suggested that altruistic, humanitarian reasons are the chief motives for donation. Present results indicate virtually no association between donorship and altruism (measured by a modified version of Wrightman's Philosophies of Human Nature Scale). Donors were more responsive to social pressure and incentives and less impeded by a free-rider tendency and the costs of giving than were nondonors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)