Wear behavior of Al2O3/Ti(C,N)/SiC new ceramic tool material when machining tool steel and cast iron

Design, fabrication and application of ceramic cutting tools are one of the important research topics in the field of metal cutting and advanced ceramic materials. In the present study, wear resistance of an advanced Al₂O₃/Ti(C,N)/SiC multiphase composite ceramic tool material have been studied when dry machining hardened tool steel and cast iron under different cutting conditions. Microstructures of the worn materials were observed with scanning electronic microscope to help analyze wear mechanisms. It is shown that when machining hardened tool steel at low speed wear mode of the kind of ceramic tool material is mainly flank wear with slight crater wear. The adhesion between tool and work piece is relatively weak. With the increase of cutting speed, cutting temperature increases consequently. As a result, the adhesion is intensified both in the crater area and flank face. The ceramic tool material has good wear resistance when machining grey cast iron with uniform flank wear. Wear mechanism is mainly abrasive wear at low cutting speed, while adhesion is intensified in the wear area at high cutting speed. Wear modes are dominantly rake face wear and flank wear in this case.     

Predictive modeling of surface roughness and tool wear in hard turning using regression and neural networks

In machining of parts, surface quality is one of the most specified customer requirements. Major indication of surface quality on machined parts is surface roughness. Finish hard turning using Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) tools allows manufacturers to simplify their processes and still achieve the desired surface roughness. There are various machining parameters have an effect on the surface roughness, but those effects have not been adequately quantified. In order for manufacturers to maximize their gains from utilizing finish hard turning, accurate predictive models for surface roughness and tool wear must be constructed. This paper utilizes neural network modeling to predict surface roughness and tool flank wear over the machining time for variety of cutting conditions in finish hard turning. Regression models are also developed in order to capture process specific parameters. A set of sparse experimental data for finish turning of hardened AISI 52100 steel obtained from literature and the experimental data obtained from performed experiments in finish turning of hardened AISI H-13 steel have been utilized. The data sets from measured surface roughness and tool flank wear were employed to train the neural network models. Trained neural network models were used in predicting surface roughness and tool flank wear for other cutting conditions. A comparison of neural network models with regression models is also carried out. Predictive neural network models are found to be capable of better predictions for surface roughness and tool flank wear within the range that they had been trained.Predictive neural network modeling is also extended to predict tool wear and surface roughness patterns seen in finish hard turning processes. Decrease in the feed rate resulted in better surface roughness but slightly faster tool wear development, and increasing cutting speed resulted in significant increase in tool wear development but resulted in better surface roughness. Increase in the workpiece hardness resulted in better surface roughness but higher tool wear. Overall, CBN inserts with honed edge geometry performed better both in terms of surface roughness and tool wear development.     

Cutting performance of solid ceramic end milling tools in machining hardened AISI H13 steel

Ceramic tools have been widely used in the cutting of hard-to-machine materials, but the applications of solid ceramic milling cutters are limited due to their design and manufacturing restrictions. This research investigates the cutting performances of four solid ceramic end milling tools including Si₃N₄, Ti(C,N), SG4 and LT55 in machining hardened AISI H13 steel (HRC 60-62). The results show that the cutting forces of ceramic end milling tools are less than that of the referenced cemented carbide tool, and such ceramic tools of Si₃N₄, Ti(C,N) and LT55 produce better surface qualities and have longer tool lives. With excellent mechanical peoperties including hardness, bending srength and fracture toughness, the ceramic tool of Ti(C,N) presents the best cutting performance taking the cutting force, machined surface quality and tool life in consideration simultaneously. The research has proven the application feasibility of ceramic materials in the manufacture of solid tools. The solid ceramic end milling tools are geometric extensions for traditional ceramic tools and they can be used in machining hardened steels.     

The influence of the microstructure of hardened tool steel workpiece on the wear of PCBN cutting tools

Due to the recent developments of advanced cutting tool materials in the superbarasive family, such as cubic boron nitride (CBN) tools, the interest in cutting hardened steels has increased significantly. High flexibility and ability to manufacture complex workpiece geometry in one set up is the main advantage of hard turning compared to grinding. The focus of this study is to investigate the performance and wear behavior of CBN tools in finish, dry turning of four different hardened steels, treated to the same hardness R_c = 54. The following four materials were machined: X155CrMoV 12 cold work steel (AISI D2), X38CrMoV5 (AISI H11) hot work steel, 35NiCrMo16 hot work steel and 100Cr6 bearing steel (AISI 52100). A large variation in tool wear rate was observed in the machining of these steels. The tool flank grooves have been correlated to the microstructure of these steels, namely the presence of various carbides. The chip study reveals that there is presence of different amounts of white layers in machining these steels.     

Machining of hardened steel—Experimental investigations,performance modeling and cooling techniques: A review

The researchers have worked on many facets of machining of hardened steel using different tool materials and came up with their own recommendations. Researchers have tried to investigate the effects of cutting parameters, tool materials, different coatings and tool geometry on different machinability aspects like, the tool life, surface roughness, cutting forces, chip morphology, residual stresses and the tool–chip interface temperature under dry and/or semi-dry and/or flood cooling environment during machining of hardened steels while many of them have ventured to characterize the wear phenomenon. Good amount of research has been performed on an analytical and/or numerical and/or empirical modeling of the cutting forces, tool–chip interface temperature, and tool wear under orthogonal/oblique cutting conditions during machining of hardened steels. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review on machining of hardened steels using coated tools, studies related to hard turning, different cooling methods and attempts made so far to model machining performance(s) so as to give proper attention to the various researcher works.     

Prediction of flank wear by using back propagation neural network modeling when cutting hardened H-13 steel with chamfered and honed CBN tools

Productivity and quality in the finish turning of hardened steels can be improved by utilizing predicted performance of the cutting tools. This paper combines predictive machining approach with neural network modeling of tool flank wear in order to estimate performance of chamfered and honed Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) tools for a variety of cutting conditions. Experimental work has been performed in orthogonal cutting of hardened H-13 type tool steel using CBN tools. At the selected cutting conditions the forces have been measured using a piezoelectric dynamometer and data acquisition system. Simultaneously flank wear at the cutting edge has been monitored by using a tool makers microscope. The experimental force and wear data were utilized to train the developed simulation environment based on back propagation neural network modeling. A trained neural network system was used in predicting flank wear for various different cutting conditions. The developed prediction system was found to be capable of accurate tool wear classification for the range it had been trained.     

Turning of interrupted and continuous hardened steel surfaces using ceramic and CBN cutting tools

In the machining of hardened steel surfaces, turning instead of grinding has been employed increasingly due to several advantages it offers, such as flexibility and the possibility of dry cutting. The main tool materials used for this purpose are CBN and ceramic due to their high hardness and, in the case of some grades of these materials, high chemical stability with iron. However, when interrupted surfaces are turned, the tool requires not only these properties but also sufficient toughness to resist impacts against workpiece interruptions. Therefore, the main goal of this work is to compare CBN and ceramic tools in continuous and interrupted cutting. To this end, several turning experiments were carried out on continuous surfaces (in this case, CBN with an added ceramic phase and a mixed ceramic were compared, due to their high chemical stability and hardness) and on interrupted surfaces (here, a high CBN content and a SiC-reinforced ceramic were compared due to their good ability to withstand impacts), applying different cutting speeds. The main conclusions of this work were that in both continuous and interrupted cutting, the CBN tools exhibited a much better performance with respect to both tool life and workpiece surface roughness than the ceramic tools.     

Surface integrity when machining age hardened Inconel 718 with coated carbide cutting tools

Considerable attention has been given to the use of ceramic cutting tools for improving productivity in the machining of heat resistant super alloys (HRSA). However, because of their negative influence on the surface integrity, ceramic tools are generally avoided particularly for finishing applications. As a result the main high end manufacturers are more or less dependent on carbide cutting tools for finishing operations. Still the improper use of carbide cutting tools can also result in poor surface integrity. The objective of this investigation is to develop a set of guidelines, which will assist the selection of the appropriate cutting tools and conditions for generating favorable compressive residual stresses. This paper specifically deals with residual stresses and surface finish components of surface integrity when machining (facing) age hardened Inconel 718 using two grades of coated carbide cutting tools specifically developed for machining HRSAs. The cutting conditions were obtained from investigations based on optimum tool performance. The effect of insert shape, cutting edge preparation, type and nose radius on both residual stresses and surface finish was studied at this optimum cutting condition. This investigation, suggested that coated carbide cutting tool inserts of round shape, chamfered cutting edge preparation, negative type and small nose radius (0.8 mm) and coolant will generate primarily compressive residual stresses.     

Residual stress and surface roughness when facing age hardened Inconel 718 with CBN and ceramic cutting tools

The demand for increasing productivity when machining heat resistant super alloys has resulted in the use of advanced cutting tools such as ceramics and cubic boron nitride (CBN). However, the effects of these tools on the surface integrity, especially the residual stresses created, in the high speed facing operation of Inconel 718 has not been dealt with. In this paper, the residual stresses and the surface roughness when facing age hardened Inconel 718 using CBN and mixed ceramic cutting tools at their respective optimum performance based on productivity has been investigated. The residual stress and surface finish generated during facing with CBN cutting tools have been investigated as a function of speed, depth of cut, coolant, tool geometry and nature of the tool coating. In addition, mixed ceramic cutting tools have been investigated for comparison. The results show that mixed ceramic cutting tools induce tensile residual stresses with a much higher magnitude than CBN cutting tools. The residual stresses and the surface roughness generated by CBN cutting tools are more sensitive to cutting speeds than depth of cut. The use of coolant results in either compressive residual stresses or lowers the magnitude of the tensile residual stresses, whereas dry cutting always resulted in tensile residual stresses. From this investigation, it is suggested that round CBN cutting tools should be used at slow cutting speeds (150 m/min) and small depths of cut (0.05 mm) and with the use of coolant to achieve compressive or minimal tensile residual stresses and good surface finish.     

Hard turning of an alloy steel on a machine tool with a polymer concrete bed

Finish turning of 39NiCrMo3 alloy steel in the hardened state has been widely investigated under dry, minimum quantity of lubricant and wet cutting conditions, using inserts in ceramic and PCBN materials, on turning centers equipped with polymer concrete and cast iron beds. The progress of workpart surface roughness and tool wear with cutting time has been measured and the results analysed and discussed in detail. It has been observed that dry cutting leads to the lowest values of tool wear and surface roughness, whilst the minimal quantity of lubricant technique does not provide advantages regarding to dry turning. Furthermore, the PCBN inserts are characterised by a longer tool life than the one exhibited by the ceramic inserts. Finally, the outstanding damping and high rigidity of the polymer concrete bed has a beneficial effect on both tool wear and workpiece surface finish.     

PCBN刀具切削性能和磨损机理研究综述

聚晶立方氮化硼(PCBN)刀具是继聚晶金刚石刀具之后的又一种超硬刀具,以其独特的“以车代磨”、“硬态加工”、“干式切削”等方式被誉为21世纪的绿色环保刀具。PCBN刀具在金属切削方面具有广泛的应用,主要用来加工各种淬硬钢、耐磨铸铁等铁基材料。本文介绍了PCBN刀具成分、几何形状、切削参数等对其切削性能的影响,在此基础上分析了不同材料加工时刀具的主要磨损机理,还简单对比了硬质合金和PCBN刀具切削性能上的差异。      

Cutting temperature of ceramic tools in high speed machining of difficult-to-cut materials

This paper deals with an experimental and analytical investigation into the different factors which influence the temperature distribution on Al₂O₃---TiC ceramic tool rake face during machining of difficult-to-cut materials, such as case hardened AISI 1552 steel (60–65 Rc) and nickel-based superalloys (e.g. Inconel 718). The temperature distribution was predicted first using the finite element analysis. Temperature measurements on the tool rake face using a thermocouple based technique were performed and the results were verified using the finite element analysis. Experiments were then performed to study the effect of cutting parameters, different tool geometries, tool conditions, and workpiece materials on the cutting edge temperatures. Results presented in this paper indicate that for turning case hardened steel, increasing the cutting speed, feted, and depth of cut will increase the cutting edge temperature. On the other hand, increasing the tool nose radius, and angle of approach reduces the cutting edge temperature, while increasing the width of the tool chamfer will slightly increase the cutting ege temperature. As for the negative rake angle, it was found that there is an optimum value of rake angle where the cutting edge temperature was minimum. For the Inconel 718 material, it was found that the cutting edge temperature reached a minimum at a speed of 510 m/min, and feed of 1.25 mm/rev. However, the effect of the depth of cut and tool nose radius was almost the same as that determined in the turning of case hardened steel. It was also observed in turning Inconel 718 with ceramic tools that, cutting forces and different types of tool wear were reduced with increasing the feed.     

Cutting forces and surface finish when machining medium hardness steel using CBN tools

Cutting forces generated using CBN tools have been evaluated when cutting steel being hardened to 45–55 HRC. Radial thrust cutting force was the largest among the three cutting force components and was most sensitive to the changes of cutting edge geometry and tool wear. The surface finish produced by CBN tools was compatible with the results of grinding and was affected by cutting speed, tool wear and plastic behaviour of the workpiece material.     

Machinability of ultrafine-grained copper using tungsten carbide and polycrystalline diamond tools

Equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) is an effective process to produce bulk ultrafine-grained (UFG) materials from regular coarse-grained materials. Such ECAE-processed materials typically excel in strength, wear resistance, ductility, and high strain-rate superplasticity, with promising applications in lightweight transportation and medical industries. Precision machining work is generally indispensable for further applications after bulk materials are produced by ECAE. To effectively and efficiently machine such ECAE-processed materials for further broad applications, machining issues such as machinability and tool material selection should be considered. This study was undertaken to investigate the machinability of ECAE-processed pure copper using both tungsten carbide (WC) and polycrystalline diamond (PCD) cutting tools in order to facilitate broad applications of ECAE-processed UFG coppers. It is found that despite its higher cost, PCD is favored to machine UFG copper based on this study since it has better wear resistance, gives lower cutting forces, yields a better workpiece surface finish, and results in no smearing on the workpiece. In machining UFG copper, depth of cut notching was observed as the wear pattern and abrasion as the wear mechanism for the WC tool, while flank wear was observed as the wear pattern and diffusion as the wear mechanism for the PCD tool.     

Tool wear and machining performance of cBN–TiN coated carbide inserts and PCBN compact inserts in turning AISI 4340 hardened steel

PCBN is the dominant tool material for hard turning applications due to its high hardness, high wear resistance, and high thermal stability. However, the inflexibility of fabricating PCBN inserts with complex tool geometries and the prohibitive cost of PCBN inserts are some of the concerns in furthering the implementation of CBN based materials for hard turning. In this paper, we present the results of a thorough investigation of cBN plus TiN (cBN–TiN) composite-coated, commercial grade, carbide inserts (CNMA 432, WC–Co (6% Co)) for hard turning applications in an effort to address these concerns. The effect of cutting speed and feed rate on tool wear (tool life), surface roughness, and cutting forces of the cBN–TiN coated carbide inserts was experimented and analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique, and the cutting conditions for their maximum tool life were evaluated. The tool wear, surface roughness, and cutting forces of the cBN–TiN coated and commercially available PCBN tipped inserts were compared under similar cutting conditions. Both flank wear and crater wear were observed. The flank wear is mainly due to abrasive actions of the martensite present in the hardened AISI 4340 alloy. The crater wear of the cBN–TiN coated inserts is less than that of the PCBN inserts because of the lubricity of TiN capping layer on the cBN–TiN coating. The coated CNMA 432 inserts produce a good surface finish (<1.6 μm) and yield a tool life of about 18 min per cutting edge. In addition, cost analysis based on total machining cost per part was performed for the comparison of the economic viability between the cBN–TiN coated and PCBN inserts.     

Tool wear and chip formation during hard turning with self-propelled rotary tools

This paper presents a performance assessment of rotary tool during machining hardened steel. The investigation includes an analysis of chip morphology and modes of tool wear. The effect of tool geometry and type of cutting tool material on the tool self-propelled motion are also investigated. Several tool materials were tested for wear resistance including carbide, coated carbide, and ceramics. The self-propelled coated carbide tools showed superior wear resistance. This was demonstrated by evenly distributed flank wear with no evidence of crater wear. The characteristics of temperature generated during machining with the rotary tool are studied. It was shown that reduced tool temperature eliminates the diffusion wear and dominates the abrasion wear. Also, increasing the tool rotational speed shifted the maximum temperature at the chip–tool interface towards the cutting edge.     

Cutting performance and wear mechanism of nanoscale and microscale textured Al2O3/TiC ceramic tools in dry cutting of hardened steel

Nanoscale and microscale textures with different geometrical characteristics were fabricated on the surface of the Al₂O₃/TiC ceramic tool, and molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) solid lubricants were burnished into the textures. The effect of the textures on the cutting performance was investigated using the textured self-lubricated tools and conventional tools in dry cutting tests. The tool wear, cutting force, cutting temperature, friction coefficient, surface roughness and chip topography were measured. Results show that the cutting force, cutting temperature, friction coefficient and tool wear of nanoscale and microscale textured self-lubricated tools are significantly reduced compared with the conventional tool, and the developed tool with wavy microscale textures on the rake face is the most effective in improving the cutting performance. The textured self-lubricated tools increase the surface roughness of machined workpiece, while they can reduce the vibration for a stable cutting and produce more uniform surface quality. The chip topography is changed by the textured self-lubricated tools. As a result, the nanoscale and microscale textured self-lubricated tools effectively improve the cutting performance of conventional Al₂O₃/TiC ceramic tool, and they are applicable to a stable dry cutting of the hardened steel.     

Use of ceramic tools for machining nickel based alloys

The paper is the first of two dealing with the use of ceramic tool materials for the machining of nickel based alloys. While the second contribution presents the results of detailed machinability tests, involving a cross-section of current nitride, superhard and whisker reinforced ceramic tooling products, this first paper comprehensively reviews existing literature on the subject.

Following an assessment of tool wear characteristics, such as depth-of-cut notching and the underlying mechanisms involved, in particular the effects of applied mechanical stress and high interface temperatures, details are given of the composition, structure, physical properties and cutting performance of various state-of-the-art ceramic tool materials. Although only recently available commercially, whisker reinforced composite tools, comprising an alumina matrix with approximately 25% by volume silicon carbide whiskers, are reported to be capable of operating at cutting speeds up to 750 m/min on some nickel based alloys.     

Ion implantation of superhard ceramic cutting tools

Despite numerous reports of tool life increase by ion implantation in machining operations, ion implantation applications of cutting tools remain limited, especially for ceramic tools. Mechanisms of tool-life improvement by implantation are not clearly established due to complexity of both implantation and tool-wear processes. In an attempt to improve performance of cubic boron nitride (CBN) tools for hard machining by ion implantation, a literature survey of ion-implanted cutting tools was carried out with a focus on mechanisms of tool-wear reduction by ion implantation. Implantation and machining experiments were then conducted to investigate implantation effects on CBN tools in hard machining. A batch of CBN tools was implanted with nitrogen ions at 150 keV and 2.5×10¹⁷ ions/cm² and further used to cut 61 HRc AISI 52100 steel at different conditions. Results show that ion implantation has strong effects on partsurface finish, moderate effect on cutting forces, but an insignificant impact on tool wear. Friction coefficients, estimated from measured cutting forces, are possibly reduced by ion implantation, which may improve surface finish. However, surprisingly, 2-D orthogonal cutting to evaluate tribological loading in hard machining showed no difference on contact stresses and friction coefficients between implanted and nonimplanted CBN tools. This paper was presented at the 2nd International Surface Engineering Congress sponsored by ASM International, on September 15–17, 2003, in Indianapolis, Indiana.     

Performance evaluation of pure CBN tools for machining of steel

Ultra-precision machining is one of the most important machining technologies for the manufacture of precision dies and molds. Typically, single point diamond cutting tools are used to machine molds which are coated with electroless nickel (NiP) for such applications. The high cost of diamond cutters and electroless nickel plating, coupled with problems of pre-mature failure of the coating in service and long lead time are negative factors in this approach. Hence, there is a strong need for the direct ultra-precision machining of mold steel and to develop relevant technologies to address the problem of tool wear. In the machining of alloy steel, cubic boron nitride (CBN) has long been used as an ideal cutting tool material but recently binderless CBN or pure CBN (PCBN) with superior mechanical properties has been developed by Sumitomo Electric Industries in Japan. The objective of this paper is to explore the feasibility of using PCBN tools for direct ultra-precision machining of Stavax, a type of alloy steel from ASSAB. The performance characteristics in terms of surface roughness and tool wear of PCBN (Sumitomo IZ900) and conventional CBN (Sumitomo BN600) under different machining conditions were studied and their results were compared. Based on the experimental results, PCBN has been found to perform better in terms of wear resistance compared to conventional CBN tool. It is also able to achieve near mirror finish of less than 30 nm R_a, and hence it appears to be a promising tool for direct cutting of die and mold materials.