Sport events,space and the ‘Live City’

Specially-designed, temporary festive spaces designed to accommodate spectators and visitors have become commonplace when hosting major and mega sporting events but to date they have received very little academic attention in the urban policy or planning fields. In this paper I explore the development of a ‘Live City’ concept that organisers in Glasgow operationalised during the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games. Empirically, I draw on fieldwork undertaken before, during and after the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games, including documentary analysis, semi-structured interviews, and observation of the four managed Live Zones operational during the event.Findings suggest that the concept of the Live City operationalised at G2014 represents a subtle, yet effective, means of further embedding capital accumulation processes in the urban setting. The Live City concept is reflective of a trend toward the staging of atmospheres as an urban policy tool. In effect, event visitors are welcomed to a fantasy city that only ever exists temporarily, staged for the benefit of others' consumption. The Live City is managed and assembled to prioritise affective atmospheres, reimagining the entire city centre as a venue to be experienced, mediated and replicated in the future when other major spectacles are attracted.     

Land‐use planning in ‘one country,two systems’: Hong Kong,Guangzhou and Shenzhen

This paper studies the political economy of urban governance and land‐use planning mechanisms in the ‘one country, two systems’ of mainland China and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR). It is argued that the market economy of Hong Kong had, over the years as a British colony, established an efficiently‐run regulatory system of land‐use planning. The current land‐use planning mechanisms are biased toward economic growth as a result of its executive‐government‐led and business‐interests‐dominated political structure. The challenge for Hong Kong as a relatively autonomous SAR, therefore, is to incorporate the social and environmental dimensions in planning for territorial development within a wider regional context as a result of economic and political integration with China. In mainland China, the reforming socialist planned economy has now embraced privately and foreign‐owned enterprises though the Communist Party and the government have retained strong political control. A ‘dual’ land‐use development system operates under an economic‐growth‐oriented development strategy. On one hand, government authorities who are land owners, land managers, and the largest land users as they own most of the economic enterprises, may not, for various reasons, follow the planning intentions when formally allocating land for development projects. On the other hand, illegal construction and land uses are widespread, suggesting that the formal land‐use planning system is ineffective, if not irrelevant, in controlling development. Part of the explanation lies in the absence of a genuine land market where legitimate persons with land‐use rights can buy and sell land within a planning framework generally agreed by the community. Unless Chinese cities strive to establish formal land‐use planning processes to prepare plans with the participation of various actors to reflect their needs, and establish urban planning mechanisms that have teeth in controlling development, urban planning will continue to be marginal in local governance.     

Cross-Border Migration of Hong Kong Residents Under the ‘One Country,Two Systems’ Policy

In market economies the built environment is largely the product of private sector property development. Property development is a high-risk entrepreneurial activity executing expensive projects with long gestation periods in an uncertain environment and into an uncertain future. Risk lies at the core of development: the developer manages the multiple risks of development and it is the capital injection and financing that is placed at risk. From the developer's perspective the search for development capital is a quest: to access more finance, over a longer term, with fewer conditions and at lower rates. From the supply angle, capital of various sources—banks, insurance companies, superannuation funds, accumulated firm profits, retail investors and private equity—is always seeking above market returns for limited risk. Property development presents one potentially lucrative, but risky, investment opportunity. Competition for returns on capital produces a continual dynamic evolution of methods for funding property developments. Thus, the relationship between capital and development and the outcomes for the built environment are in a restless continual evolution. Little is documented about the ways development is financed in Australia and even less of the consequences for cities. Using publicly available data sources and examples of different development financing from Australian practice, this article argues that different methods of financing development have different outcomes and consequences for the built environment. This article also presents an agenda for further research into these themes.     

Virtual enclosure,ecosystem services,landscape’s character and the ‘rewilding’ of the commons: the ‘Lake District’ case

Abstract

It is paradoxical that, while there is a generally increasing recognition of the scientific and cultural importance of conserving ‘semi-natural’ pastoral environments, and the negative effects of their widespread abandonment and overgrowth, British ‘rewilding’ activists and environmental managers are effectively advocating policies that will have a similar negative effect on the character of the semi-natural pastoral commons of places like England’s iconic Lake District. This situation, it will be argued, owes to the mindset of ‘virtual enclosure’ whereby the character of landscape is pre-defined by an assumed, behind-the-scenes, Euclidean/Ptolemaic spatial logic that leads to the comprehension of nature as a bounded scenic property; an (e)state of nature with its own economic system and services. This mindset is antithetical to both the practice of pastoral commoning and much contemporary natural science and conservation policy. It fits well, however, with older teleological ideas of nature, as well as modern ideas of privatisation, private property and management control.     

Temporary use and the onto-politics of ‘public’ space

This paper is situated amidst concerns that public spaces are diminishing in both quantity and quality (Low & Smith, 2006), with this trend exacerbated by the excising of state budgets for their provision, maintenance or development, their privatisation and/or devolution of their management to corporate interests. Here we interrogate what ‘public space’ is using the lens of temporary use projects undertaken on privately-owned land. As a distinct form of DIY urbanism, it could be argued that temporary use projects might be least likely to promote enduring change but, in this paper, we demonstrate that it is their very transience that enables the interstices between the actual and the possible to be exploited in innovative ways. We explore how a distinctive methodology associated with temporary use projects, and a reconceptualisation of what public space is, creates new opportunities to restore the emancipatory potential of (increasingly) emaciated public places.     

Advancing a ‘new professionalism’: professionalization,practice and institutionalization

By way of review and response to the Building Research & Information special issue entitled ‘New Professionalism’ (2013, volume 40, number 1), compiled by Bordass and Leaman, this paper assesses the potential and prospects for changes to the ‘system of professions’ in construction associated with a shift towards sustainability. The paper builds on and develops the analysis of professionals and professionalization in the special issue, forming a bridge with other contemporary work in organization studies and the sociology of the professions. The creation of a ‘new professionalism’ that transcends existing divisions amongst building professions will present a number of challenges. Amongst these are, on the one hand, the interweaving of processes of professionalization and institutionalization and, on the other hand, the influence of practice. Suggestions are provided on how the themes and issues raised in the special issue can be taken forward in both research and practice.     

Street Life and the ‘People’s City’

Could large-scale urban development and an erosion of rights to public space prove the death knoll for China’s vibrant street life? Shi Jian , Planning Director of ISreading Culture in Beijing, looks at the tradition of Chinese street culture and how it is currently shifting and reinventing itself for new urban contexts. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

‘Equal right to housing’ in Hong Kong housing policy: perspectives from disadvantaged groups

The ‘right to housing’ incorporates at least five different dimensions which are all indispensible for the minimum satisfaction of such right, namely, housing that is adequate and affordable, enjoyed without arbitrary interference or forced eviction, and the right of choice to opt for rent or home-ownership as well as neighbourhood. ‘Equal right to housing’ essentially means equal opportunity or non-discrimination in the fulfillment of all dimensions of ‘right to housing’. In Hong Kong, for those with economic means, the extent of their ‘right to housing’ are largely satisfied; however, this may not be the case for those from the lower socioeconomic strata, especially members of disadvantaged groups from the latter, who are doubly deprived. This paper will examine the views on ‘equal right to housing’ in Hong Kong housing policy from four disadvantaged groups, namely, single-parent families, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and Mainland New Arrivals, by drawing on information from in-depth interviews with members of these groups, representatives of organizations serving these disadvantaged groups, property sector practitioners, Equal Opportunity Commission representative and members of the general public. On the whole, the members of the disadvantaged groups, especially those from the lower socioeconomic strata may not enjoy equal opportunity to different dimensions of the ‘right to housing’ in Hong Kong, mainly due to discriminatory selection of tenants on the part of private landlords as well as the limited economic means of some of them. These may be, to some extent, magnified by some biased practices in public housing policy. This paper will end by examining some of policy implications of ‘equal right to housing’.     

Shaping Seoul’s memories: the co-evolution of memorials,national identity,democracy and urban space in South Korea’s capital city

This paper examines the evolving subjects, forms, symbolism, and spatial constellation of the diverse memorials erected in Seoul since 1953. It explores how these memorials have expressed shifts in national identity towards democracy since the end of dictatorship in 1987. It illustrates how commemorative intentions in this massive, rapidly-changing metropolis have intersected with other urban design aims and pressures. The analysis reveals an evolutionary progression in memorial themes, from heroic statues that re-establish roots of Korean national identity and independence, to marginal grassroots memorials and wider themed precincts that present more inclusive, democratic, complex narratives of identity and history.     

Macmillan’s martyr: the Pilgrim case,the ‘land grab’ and the Tory housing drive, 1951–9

The suicide of Edward Pilgrim in 1954 prompted a public furore over the easy terms on which public authorities could compulsorily purchase privately owned land for development. This article argues that Harold Macmillan, as Conservative Housing Minister after 1951, consciously prolonged the statist purchase provisions of the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act even as a reviving market in development land in the early 1950s made them unrealistic and inequitable. The Tories’ twin aims of abolishing the 1947 development charge and making good the ambitious 1951 election pledge to build 300,000 houses per year created an immensely complex set of problems which Macmillan negotiated with much skill. The result, though, was that local authorities – mostly Labour ones – eager to build houses benefited and many individual small owners like Pilgrim suffered from this policy. The Tory pledge was therefore realised in part by means of a hidden subsidy to municipal socialism and at the expense of many natural Conservative supporters.     

Between ‘Platial’ Imaginations and Spatial Rationalities: Navigating Justice and Law in the Low Countries

During the past two decades, landscape has frequently been conceptualized as a distancing way of seeing space. This conceptualization is normally traced back to the rise of capitalism and various modes of artistic representation, notably in the early modern Netherlands or the northern Low Countries. Yet recent scholarly interventions have asserted that landscape in the Low Countries and elsewhere in Europe was more than a distant scenery or an artistic mode of representation. Landscape also animated practices and ideologies of political representation, platial justice and custom. The platial notion of landscape and related concepts in the northern Low Countries around 1600 is focused upon, bringing out the intimate relationships between land, water and diverging ideals and practices of justice. It is argued that artistic landscape representation provided ways to reflect upon spatio-political developments in the Netherlands. Finally, there is a brief consideration of how these theoretical and historical issues resonate with modern thinking about landscape in physical planning.     

Newspaper representation and power relations in infrastructure projects: a case study of Hong Kong’s Express Rail Link

This paper explores newspapers’ representation of different actors in infrastructure projects, and analyses the power relations between them through a case study in Hong Kong. The case in question is the highly controversial Express Rail Link, which connects Hong Kong to the extensive high-speed railway network in mainland China. It finds that under an immature democratic system, opponents’ political power and free press play important roles in forcing the government to make concessions outside the formal framework. The methodological framework employs a concept that takes media representation as a reflection of power [Van Dijk, Teun A. 1996. “Discourse, Power and Access.” In Texts and Practices: Readings in Critical Discourse Analysis, edited by Carmen Caldas-Coulthard and Malcolm Coulthard, 84–104. London: Routledge], and three theories seldom used in the planning field – Indexing Theory [Bennett, W. Lance. 1990. “Toward a Theory of Press-State Relations in the United States.” Journal of Communication 40 (2): 103–127. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1990.tb02265.x], Agenda Setting Theory [McCombs, Maxwell E., and Donald L. Shaw. 1972. “The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media.” Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (2): 176–187] and Law of Anticipated Reactions [Zelditch, Morris, and John Ford. 1994. “Uncertainty, Potential Power, and Nondecisions.” Social Psychology Quarterly 57 (1): 64]. A new method for Critical Discourse Analysis, in the form of colour charts, is developed to portray the competition for representation in newspapers of different actors, paying special attention to power inequalities and which actors gain access to newspaper discourse and how they use it to convey specific messages. In this study, 500 newspaper articles (from two key newspapers – SCMP and Apple Daily) and 75 government publications in Hong Kong are analysed.     

‘The party’s over’: critical junctures,crises and the politics of housing policy

The key argument set out in this article is that historical and comparative forms of investigation are necessary if we are to better understand the ambitions and scope of contemporary housing interventions. To demonstrate the veracity of our claim, we have set out an analysis of the UK housing polices enacted in the mid-1970s as a basis for comparison with those pursued 40 years later. The article begins with a critical summary of some of the methodological approaches adopted by researchers used to interpret housing policy. In the main section, we present our critical analysis of housing policy reforms (implemented by the Labour government between 1974 and 1979) noting both their achievements and limitations. In the concluding section, we use our interpretation of this period as a basis to judge contemporary housing policy and reflect on the methodological issues that arise from our analysis.     

The politics of ‘race’ and the transformation of the post-apartheid space economy

This paper provides an overview of the challenge of spatial reconfiguration facing South Africa. Set against a brief overview of the key aspects of the post apartheid urban policy milieu that, notwithstanding significant tensions within the ruling party, gave rise to a cabinet level policy commitment to a National Spatial Development Perspective (NSDP). The paper reflects on three key themes. The first issue outlined in the paper is the massive demographic shift that is taking place that underpins the development challenge. In particular trends in the process of population growth, labour market change and urbanization are summarized. Second, given the dominance of Africans in urban spaces, the paper outlines how efforts to achieve racial integration have erroneously focused on rural over urban development. A distinction is drawn between traditionalist pro-African views that give preferences to rural spending and modernist views that articulate an overly non-racial discourse that embraces a shift to urban development. Finally we argue that the failure of spatial planning as proposed by the NSDP was not inevitable, despite real flaws in the policy and its execution. The dithering on spatial policy that surrounded the NSDP must be understood as the outcome of political contestation within the ruling party and a misplaced conflation of the categories of rural and African.     

The shaping of early Hong Kong: transplantation and adaptation by the British professionals, 1841–1941

Britain's colonial cities benefitted greatly from town planning practices that originated in the mother country. Hong Kong, one of many British colonial cities, grew from a small fishing village to an international metropolis. Urban development in the colony from 1841 to 1941 was continuous and systematic but ended abruptly with the Japanese invasion in World War II. The period was marked by rapid urban growth which brought with it many problems for the colonial management. This paper reviews the urban history of Hong Kong over the 100-year period from 1841 and explores the development motives of the colonial administration. The colonial government appointed British professionals for specialized roles and their services were apparent in significant milestones in the city's town planning and construction. The paper highlights the contributions of a few significant personnel: A.T. Gordon, C.G. Cleverly, Osbert Chadwick, David J. Owen and Wilfred H. Owen. By describing the works of these British colonial professionals, the authors hope to illustrate their impact on the development of Hong Kong, linking history to the present and filling gaps in the study of Hong Kong's early town planning. Both archive research and on-site study were employed in the preparation of this paper which is expected to complement other studies of colonial city planning in Asia and Africa.     

‘Agitating people’s brains’: Noulan Cauchon and the City Scientific in Canada’s capital

Noulan Cauchon (1872–1935) was a founder of the Town Planning Institute of Canada and the Ottawa Town Planning Commission. He played a significant role in the planning of Canada’s capital city in the early twentieth century. This article traces the evolution of Cauchon’s planning ideas and their place within the Canadian planning profession, based upon his numerous public lectures, newspaper and journal articles. He was a close ally of Thomas Adams during the 1914‐26 campaign to extend town planning across Canada. Cauchon’s background as a railway engineer influenced his City Scientific approach to planning, which contrasted with the City Beautiful proposals for the capital produced for the federal government. This City Scientific approach became the dominant mode of planning in Canada after 1918. Cauchon produced a comprehensive zoning by‐law and many small‐scale planning schemes for the Ottawa area. Few of his proposals were implemented by the municipality, which deferred to the national government on most planning issues during this period. But Cauchon’s ideas influenced the early evolution of the profession in Canada and the redevelopment of the national capital after 1945.     

Towards the ‘ubiquitous eco-city’: An analysis of the internationalisation of eco-city policy and practice

European governments are tending to perceive cities as sites of renewed economic dynamism and physical renaissance, and as places that can help to resolve social and environmental challenges. The paper presents three propositions for why the fortunes of cities in advanced economies may have improved. It then offers evidence from across Western Europe to assess whether they have done so, both in comparison with their past trajectories and in relation to smaller urban and rural areas. One finding is that cities in aggregate have experienced continued prosperity rather than decline and revival or accelerated growth. Another is that their overall position relative to smaller settlements does not seem to have changed greatly. Looking in more detail, however, there is more evidence of resurgence, as well as the opposite. National variations seem important and cities in Finland, Sweden, Ireland, Britain and Spain show signs of substantial economic improvement over the last decade. In contrast, cities in Germany have experienced a marked slowdown, albeit from a position of comparative prosperity at the outset.