Exploring the relation between visualizer-verbalizer cognitive styles and performance with visual or verbal learning material

A student might find a certain representational format (e.g., diagram, text) more attractive than other formats for learning. Computer technology offers opportunities to adjust the formats used in learning environments to the preferences of individual learners. The question addressed in the current study was: does the match between a student’s preference regarding the format of learning materials have any relation with performance when learning with a specific format? For example, do learners with a preference for visual materials indeed perform better with visual learning materials? In a study with a pre-test post-test design, 48 participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. Both conditions completed a mathematical learning task about combinatorics and probability theory. In one condition learning materials were mainly diagram-based in the other condition they were mainly text-based. Afterward, the relations between cognitive style (visualizers-verbalizers), cognitive abilities (e.g., spatial and verbal ability), and learning performance were examined. The findings showed that cognitive style and learning outcomes were unrelated, for example, learners with a preference for visual materials do not necessarily perform better with visual learning materials. Learning results seem to be influenced by cognitive ability (in particular spatial visualization) and the extent to which a format affords cognitive processing, rather than a match between used and preferred format. It is argued that students should not choose on the basis of their preference, because it might lead them to selecting a format that is less effective for learning.     

Exploring the behavioral patterns of learners in an educational massively multiple online role-playing game (MMORPG)

Massively multiple online role-playing games (MMORPGs) are very popular among students. Educational MMORPGs, however, are very rare, as are studies on gamers’ behavioral patterns during such games. The current study is an empirical observation and analysis of the behavioral patterns of 100 gamers participating in an educational MMORPG called Talking Island^©. In our study, we recorded and summarized the gaming behaviors demonstrated by these participants over 335 days of observation from December 2009 to October 2010. We coded the recorded behaviors and conducted a frequency analysis, sequential analysis and cluster analysis to explore the behavioral distributions, behavioral-frequency transition and behavior-cluster patterns in the MMORPG. Gender differences in behavioral patterns were also compared and discussed. Based on the results, we discuss the potential and limitations of the game and provide suggestions for future research on and the development of educational MMORPGs.     

Can differences in learning strategies explain the benefits of learning from static and dynamic visualizations?

The effects of dynamic and static visualizations in understanding physical principles of fish locomotion were investigated. Seventy-five students were assigned to one of three conditions: a text-only, a text with dynamic visualizations, or a text with static visualizations condition. During learning, subjects were asked to think aloud. Learning outcomes were measured by tests assessing verbal factual knowledge, pictorial recall as well as transfer. Learners in the two visualization conditions outperformed those in the text-only condition for transfer and pictorial recall tasks, but not for verbal factual knowledge tasks. Analyses of the think-aloud protocols revealed that learners had generated more inferences in the visualization conditions as opposed to the text-only condition. These results were mirrored by students’ self-reported processing demands. No differences were observable between the dynamic and the static condition concerning any of the learning outcome measures. However, think-aloud protocols revealed an illusion of understanding when learning with dynamic as opposed to static visualizations. Furthermore, learners with static visualizations tended to play the visualizations more often. The results stress the importance of not only using outcome-oriented, but also process-oriented approaches to gain deeper insight into learning strategies when dealing with various instructional materials.     

Advancing young adolescents’ hypothesis-development performance in a computer-supported and problem-based learning environment

Hypothesis development is a complex cognitive activity, but one that is critical as a means of reducing uncertainty during ill-structured problem solving. In this study, we examined the effect of metacognitive scaffolds in strengthening hypothesis development. We also examined the influence of hypothesis development on young adolescents’ problem-solving performance. Data was collected from sixth-grade students (N = 172) using a computer-supported problem-based learning environment, Animal Investigator. The findings of the study indicated that participants using metacognitive scaffolds developed significantly better hypotheses and that hypothesis-development performance was predictive of solution-development performance. This article discusses further educational implications of the findings and future research.     

The interplay between cognitive and motivational variables in a supportive online learning system for secondary physical education

A path model was used to test the unique and interactive effects of cognitive and motivational variables when learning in a supportive online learning system, Collaborative Inquiry System (CIS). In this student-centered learning environment, students interact with computer simulations and are assisted by online scaffolds intended to help them learn complex scientific concepts. The present study also explored the relationships between students’ motivational, cognitive, and metacognitive strategy use and online performance. In total, 178 tenth-grade students participated in the study. The statistical analyses revealed that students’ learning goals and cognitive preferences predicted metacognitive strategy use and later influenced their performance. Prior knowledge is a predictor of neither metacognitive strategy use nor learning goals and need for cognition, but is nevertheless an important determinant of online performance. Discussions on how to accommodate the different needs of students with varying levels of prior knowledge, goal orientation, and cognitive preference in a supportive learning system are provided based on the results.     

Self-assessment and task selection in learner-controlled instruction: Differences between effective and ineffective learners

Learner-controlled instruction is often found to be less effective for learning than fixed or adaptive system-controlled instruction. One possible reason for that finding is that students – especially novices – might not able to accurately assess their own performance and select tasks that fit their learning needs. Therefore, this explorative study investigated the differences in self-assessment and task-selection processes between effective and ineffective learners (i.e., in terms of learning gains) studying in a learner-controlled instructional environment. Results indicated that although effective learners could more accurately assess their own performance than ineffective learners, they used the same task aspects to select learning tasks. For effective learners, who were also more accurate self-assessors, the self-assessment criteria predicted subsequent task selection. The results are discussed, particularly with regard to their potential to provide guidelines for the design of a self-assessment and task-selection training.     

Assessing the effects of different multimedia materials on emotions and learning performance for visual and verbal style learners

Multimedia materials are now increasingly used in curricula. However, individual preferences for multimedia materials based on visual and verbal cognitive styles may affect learners' emotions and performance. Therefore, in-depth studies that investigate how different multimedia materials affect learning performance and the emotions of learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles are needed. Additionally, many education scholars have argued that emotions directly affect learning performance. Therefore, a further study that confirms the relationships between learners' emotions and performance for learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles will provide useful knowledge in terms of designing an emotion-based adaptive multimedia learning system for supporting personalized learning. To investigate these issues, the study applies the Style of Processing (SOP) scale to identify verbalizers and visualizers. Moreover, the emotion assessment instrument emWave, which was developed by HeartMath, is applied to assess variations in emotional states for verbalizers and visualizers during learning processes. Three different multimedia materials, static text and image-based multimedia material, video-based multimedia material, and animated interactive multimedia material, were presented to verbalizers and visualizers to investigate how different multimedia materials affect individual learning performance and emotion, and to identify relationships between learning performance and emotion. Experimental results show that video-based multimedia material generates the best learning performance and most positive emotion for verbalizers. Moreover, dynamic multimedia materials containing video and animation are more appropriate for visualizers than static multimedia materials containing text and image. Finally, a partial correlation exists between negative emotion and learning performance; that is, negative emotion and pretest scores considered together and negative emotion alone can predict learning performance of visualizers who use video-based multimedia material for learning.     

The effect of scaffolding students’ context-generating cognitive activity in technology-enhanced case-based learning

This study investigates the hypothesis that students’ learning and problem-solving performance in ill-structured domains can be improved, if elaborative question prompts are used to activate students’ context-generating cognitive processes, during case study. Two groups of students used a web-based learning environment to criss-cross and study case-based material in the software project management domain. The experimental group was additionally prompted to consistently answer a set of questions based on a model of context-generating processes, meant to engage students in deeper processing of information presented in cases. Students were also classified as having either “complex” or “simple” EB profile (based on their epistemological beliefs record), thereby establishing a 2 × 2 factorial design. Results indicated that scaffolding treatment had a significant main effect on students’ performance, with the experimental group performing better in both domain knowledge acquisition and knowledge transfer post-test items. There is also tentative indication that EB profile and scaffolding treatment interact, with complex-EB learners benefiting most from the scaffolded condition. Overall, the study provides evidence that it is possible to improve individual learning in a technology environment for case-based learning, by implementing appropriate questioning strategies that trigger students to activate their context-generating cognitive processes, while studying the contextually rich material of cases.     

Motivating the learning of science topics in secondary school: A constructivist edutainment setting for studying Chaos

In this paper, we present an Edutainment (education plus entertainment) secondary school setting based on the construction of artifacts and manipulation of virtual contents (images, sound, and music) connected to Chaos.     

A case study on using prediction markets as a rich environment for active learning

In this paper, prediction markets are presented as an innovative pedagogical tool which can be used to create a Rich Environment for Active Learning (REAL). Prediction markets are designed to make forecasts about specific future events by using a market mechanism to aggregate the information held by a large group of traders about that event into a single value. Prediction markets can be used to create decision scenarios which are linked to real-world events. The advantages of this approach in the cognitive and affective domains of learning are examined. The unique ability of prediction markets to enable active learning in large group teaching environments is explored. Building on this theoretical work, a detailed case study is presented describing how a prediction market can be deployed as a pedagogical tool in practice. Empirical evidence is presented exploring the effect prediction market participation has on learners in the cognitive domain.     

Exploring the influence of game design on learning and voluntary use in an online vascular anatomy study aid

This research explores the educational impact of an online study aid-game for studying human vascular anatomy (n = 24) versus a similar non-game study aid (n = 22) and how it relates to medical students' demographic traits and voluntary use over a 35-day period. Hierarchical linear regression models revealed that study aid success rate (a metric for assessing performance through the study aids) was a significant predictor of anatomy test improvement with the game (β = 0.41, p = 0.05), but not for the non-game (β = 0.14, p = 0.56). Our analyses suggest that game mechanics encouraged more specific problem-solving strategies than did the control study aid, leading to greater predictability of learning outcomes. There was a non-significant trend among game treatment participants, who were more likely to complete study tasks than those assigned to the control treatment (p = 0.11). It would appear that students' studying habits had the greatest influence (though opposite in both tools) on level of engagement in study aid use. However, contrary to expectations, self-reported gaming habits did not impact participation. Overall, these findings support the integration of game design into undergraduate study aids as a means of increasing use of supplementary educational tools and assessing knowledge.     

How science students can learn about unobservable phenomena using computer-based analogies

A novel instructional computer simulation that incorporates a dynamic analogy to represent Le Chatelier’s Principle was designed to investigate the contribution of this feature to students’ understanding. Two groups of 12th grade Chemistry students (n = 15) interacted with the computer simulation during the study. Both groups did the same pre-instructional and simulation activities except one of the groups interacted with the analogical example in the simulation and the other group was asked to recall an analogy that was presented in the form of text and pictures. A statistical analysis of the tests administered at the end of the study suggested that analogies that are dynamic, interactive, and integrated in a computer simulation may have a stronger effect on learning outcomes than analogies which are presented in the form of text and static pictures. The implication of this study for science educators is that dynamic computer-based analogies can enhance student learning of unobservable phenomena in science.     

3D visualization types in multimedia applications for science learning: A case study for 8th grade students in Greece

This research aims to determine whether the use of specific types of visualization (3D illustration, 3D animation, and interactive 3D animation) combined with narration and text, contributes to the learning process of 13- and 14- years-old students in science courses. The study was carried out with 212 8th grade students in Greece. This exploratory study utilizes three different versions of an interactive multimedia application called “Methods of separation of mixtures”, each one differing from the other two in a type of visuals. The results indicate that multimedia applications with interactive 3D animations as well as with 3D animations do in fact increase the interest of students and make the material more appealing to them. The findings also suggest that the most obvious and essential benefit of static visuals (3D illustrations) is that they leave the time control of learning to the students and decrease the cognitive load.     

Exploring differences between gifted and grade-level students’ use of self-regulatory learning processes with hypermedia

Research involving gifted and grade-level students has shown that they display differences in their knowledge of self-regulatory strategies. However, little research exists regarding whether these students differ in their actual use of these strategies. This study aimed to address this question by examining think-aloud data collected from 98 gifted and grade-level students engaging in a complex learning task: utilizing a hypermedia environment to learn about the circulatory system. We also examined both declarative knowledge and mental model measures of learning to determine whether these groups differed in their actual performance. Our results show that gifted students did outperform grade-level students in all outcome measures. In addition, gifted students more often utilized more sophisticated self-regulatory strategies (e.g. coordinating informational sources) than grade-level students. Grade-level students were more likely to use less effective strategies that are less likely to promote the acquisition of knowledge (e.g. mnemonics). Recommendations for future intervention studies are based upon these findings.     

Stochastic frontier estimation of efficient learning in video games

Stochastic Frontier Regression Analysis was used to investigate strategies and skills that are associated with the minimization of time required to achieve proficiency in video games among students in grades four and five. Students self-reported their video game play habits, including strategies and skills used to become good at the video games they play. Results indicated an association between game play time spent during vacation weeks and proficiency at the game, but no such association existed with game play time during typical weeks when school is in session. Several strategies and skills were associated with the minimization of time spent to achieve proficiency at the game, while a few strategies and skills held a negative association with efficient learning in games. Some of the findings paralleled those of prior research on formal education. Gender differences, as well as implications for games and learning are discussed.     

Effects of interactivity and instructional scaffolding on learning: Self-regulation in online video-based environments

Online learning often requires learners to be self-directed and engaged. The present study examined students' self-regulatory behaviors in online video-based learning environments. Using an experimental design, this study investigated the effects of a newly designed enhanced video learning environment, which was designed to support or scaffold students' self-regulated or self-directed learning on students' learning behaviors and outcomes. In addition, correspondence between students' self-regulation strategies in traditional learning environments and observed self-regulated learning behaviors in the enhanced video environment were examined. A cross-sectional experimental research design with systematic random assignment of participants to either the control condition (common video) or the experimental condition (enhanced video) was utilized. Undergraduate and graduate students participated in the study (N = 80). Study results indicate that the newly designed enhanced video learning environment was a superior instructional tool than the common video learning environment in terms students' learning performance. In addition, there was correspondence between graduate students' self-reported self-regulation and observed self-regulation, with those high on seeking/learning information and managing their environment/behavior more likely to engage more in interactive note-taking.     

‘Pretty Lights’ and Maths! Increasing student engagement and enhancing learning through the use of electronic voting systems

University classes in Mathematics are traditionally perceived to be uninspiring and devoid of active student–lecturer communication. Large undergraduate classes further compound the difficulty of engaging students and enabling viable student–lecturer feedback. At the Mathematics Education Centre, Loughborough University, some staff members have been using electronic voting systems (EVS) to enliven the classroom and enable large numbers of students to respond to questions in real time during class. In this paper, we present an evaluation case study, based on student perceptions, of the impact of EVS use on student learning and engagement. The results show that majority of students are hugely positive about the usefulness and overall advantageousness of EVS use in classes. Results also show that EVS use does increase the likelihood of students participating and engaging in class, as even students who do not view EVS as being particularly useful stated that they are more likely to participate in classes where EVS are used than otherwise. However, there seems to be no correlation between EVS use and improvement (or otherwise) in student grades.     

The influence of student characteristics on the use of adaptive e-learning material

Adaptive e-learning materials can help teachers to educate heterogeneous student groups. This study provides empirical data about the way academic students differ in their learning when using adaptive e-learning materials. Ninety-four students participated in the study. We determined characteristics in a heterogeneous student group by collecting demographic data and measuring motivation and prior knowledge. We also measured the learning paths students followed and learning strategies they used when working with adaptive e-learning material in a molecular biology course. We then combined these data to study if and how student characteristics relate to the learning paths and strategies they used. We observed that students did follow different learning paths. Gender did not have an effect, but (mainly Dutch) BSc students differed from (international) MSc students in the intrinsic motivation they had and the learning paths and strategies they followed when using the adaptive e-learning material.