Content structure and instructional control strategies as design variables in concept acquisition.

Two instructional design variables were investigated that relate directly to the learning of coordinate concepts. The 1st variable, content structure, tested the hypothesis that simultaneous presentation of coordinate concepts enhances concept learning more than successive or collective presentation. In this study, the data analysis showed that 90 high school students who were given concepts simultaneously performed significantly better on the posttest than those who received concepts successively or collectively. The 2nd variable, instructional control strategy, contrasted an adaptive control strategy with a learner control strategy. Posttest performance was above the criterion level for the adaptive condition, but it was below the criterion level for the learner control condition. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Brief experimental analysis of stimulus prompts for accurate responding on academic tasks in an outpatient clinic

Brief multielement designs were used to examine the effects of specific instructional strategies on accuracy of academic performance during outpatient evaluations of 4 children with learning disorders. Instructional strategies that improved accuracy on academic tasks were identified for all participants. These results suggest that the application of experimental analysis methodologies to instructional variables may facilitate the identification of stimulus prompts that are associated with enhanced academic performance.     

Adaptive control of learning time and content sequence in concept learning using computer-based instruction.

Investigated 2 independent variables associated with the design of instruction for coordinate concept learning to clarify the transition in memory between conceptual knowledge formation and procedural knowledge development. The 1st variable, display time interval, controlled the amount of instructional display time of each interrogatory example; the 2nd variable, content sequence, sequenced examples according to response-sensitive decision strategies effecting incorrect solutions. 72 11th graders who were randomly assigned to 1 of 6 instructional treatment conditions served as Ss in a 2?×?3 experimental design. Data analysis showed that adaptive-controlled display time groups needed fewer examples and less instructional time and performed better on the posttest and retention test than did the learner-controlled groups. For the 2nd variable, the combined generalization–discrimination strategy resulted in better on-task learning efficiency and test performances than each of these strategies separately. Findings are discussed in reference to concept teaching using a 2-phase concept-learning theory. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instructional control strategies and content structure as design variables in concept acquisition using computer-based instruction.

Studied 135 undergraduates to investigate 2 instructional design variables directly related to concept learning. The 1st variable, management strategy, tested the hypothesis that advising Ss of their learning need in relationship to acquisition of a task at a given criterion would be more effective than adaptive control or learner control strategies. Data analysis showed that the advisement condition resulted in better performance than the learner control condition and needed less instructional time and fewer instructional instances than the adaptive control condition. The 2nd variable contrasted 2 forms of content structure used in learning coordinate concepts. Ss given concepts simultaneously performed better on the posttest and needed less instruction than those who received concepts successively. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adaptive design strategies for selecting number and presentation order of examples in coordinate concept acquisition.

A study using 132 10th–11th graders investigated 2 variables of computer-based adaptive instructional strategies for concept learning. The 1st variable tested the hypothesis that the selection of the number of examples according to on-task information is more efficient than the selection according to pretask information or pretask plus on-task information. Data analysis showed that the on-task information condition needed significantly less instructional time and fewer instructional examples than either of the other 2 conditions. The 2nd variable contrasted a response-sensitive strategy with a response-insensitive strategy to determine the presentation order of examples within rational sets. Results show that Ss in the response-sensitive group not only performed better but also needed less on-task learning time and fewer examples than the response-insensitive group. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher expectations: II. Construction and reflection of student achievement.

Tested hypotheses regarding self-fulfilling prophecies, perceptual biases, and accuracy using longitudinal data relating 98 6th-grade math teachers' expectations to 1,731 students' performance. Consistent with the self-fulfilling prophecy hypothesis, teacher expectations predicted changes in student achievement beyond effects accounted for by previous achievement and motivation. Consistent with the perceptual bias hypothesis, teacher expectations predicted their own evaluations of students' performance more strongly than they predicted standardized test scores. Consistent with the accuracy hypothesis, path coefficients relating teacher expectations to standardized achievement tests were about 80% lower than zero-order correlations, and the path coefficients relating teacher expectations to students' grades were 45% to 65% lower than the zero-order correlations. These results support a weak constructivist perspective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clearing hurdles in teacher adoption and sustained use of research-based instruction

Gersten et al., in this issue of JLD, have pinpointed variables that preclude teachers' sustenance of research-based instructional strategies. These variables fall squarely on the shoulders of intervention researchers. However, they have not attended to variables that stem from teachers themselves. Hence, in my commentary, I focus on teacher variables that account for their lack of initiation and sustenance of research-based instructional strategies. Specifically, I highlight teachers' (a) overarching conceptions of teaching, (b) subject-area knowledge, and (c) sense of self-efficacy. Of these, for reasons given in my article, I elaborate more on teacher self-efficacy. I conclude with suggestions on promoting teacher self-efficacy.     

Relationships between aptitudes and vocabulary learning at different stages of practice.

Attempted to replicate a study by D. M. Roberts, F. J. King, and R. P. Kropp (see pa, vol. 45:7370) which, using a learning-how-to-learn methodology, explored relationships between abilities and vocabulary learning at different stages of practice, utilizing 2 instructional methods. 131 10th graders were given a battery of 9 tests (defined either by J. P. Guilford's structure-of-intellect model or the kit of reference tests for cognitive factors) followed by daily vocabulary practice for 3 wk. Achievement and time criteria were used as dependent variables. Results show increasing achievement scores and decreasing times to work through the learning materials across blocks of practice for both instructional methods. Cognitive test correlations decreased across practice while perceptual speed test correlations with criterion performance were low and showed little change. In general, the current data is in agreement with the previous results and offers little support for aptitude * treatment interaction theory. (french summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concept learning effectiveness using prototype and skill development presentation forms.

Investigated whether concept learning is a 2-fold process: acquisition of a prototype and development of generalization and discrimination skills. Data analyses showed that learning was facilitated for 120 4th-grade students by a presentation form that combined expository statements of best examples (prototype acquisition) with interrogatives (skill development) over presentations that were expository or interrogatory only. At the concrete and identity levels of concept attainment, a prototype was learned with all 3 presentation forms, but only with the expository–interrogatory form was the acquired prototype maintained on the retention test. At the classificatory and formal levels, skills were developed and maintained with the expository-interrogatory presentation form only. A 2nd independent variable contrasted instructional materials designed with and without formative evaluations. Results show no difference in posttest performance. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Matching students' cognitive responses to teaching skills.

Proposes a model of learning from instruction in which students perceive and cognitively respond to instructional stimuli before engaging learning processes per se. 302 university students were trained to recognize only (structural schema) or to recognize and cognitively respond to (functional schema) discrete teacher skills in lectures. Exp I produced no differences in learning due to overloading working memory and students' alteration or rejection of the schema. Practice with the schema was increased during training for Exp II. Structural training with extra practice enhanced learning more than did functional training, partly for the same reasons as in Exp I. The role of students' perception of instructional stimuli in learning from teaching is examined, and problems for research in which students' processing of instruction is distinguished from learning per se are identified. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Students' goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities.

We used structural equation analysis to test the validity of a goal mediational model for conceptualizing the influence of individual and situational variables on students' cognitive engagement in science activities. Fifth- and sixth-grade students (N?=?275) from 10 classrooms completed a set of questionnaires designed to assess their goal orientations and their use of high-level or effort-minimizing learning strategies while completing six different science activities. Results indicate that students who placed greater emphasis on task-mastery goals reported more active cognitive engagement. In contrast, students oriented toward gaining social recognition, pleasing the teacher, or avoiding work reported a lower level of cognitive engagement. The relative strength of these goals was related to differences in students' intrinsic motivation and attitudes toward science. Our analyses also suggested that these variables exerted a greater influence in small-group than in whole-class activities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preferred strategies for learning ethics in the practice of a discipline.

There are very few formal evaluations of the impact of instructional practices on the effectiveness of strategies for learning professional ethics. The assessment of ethical knowledge and skills is important in current discussions of professional mobility across North American jurisdictions. The present study investigated adult learners' perceived level of helpfulness of 7 strategies when learning 7 different ethical content areas. Adult learners rated interactive strategies as more helpful for learning compared to traditional didactic methods. Adult learners rated the helpfulness of various strategies differently for different content areas, indicating that several strategies may be useful. We conclude by making recommendations for further investigation of the effectiveness of various learning strategies in terms of knowledge gained and subsequent behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the instructional contexts of students with learning disabilities

This review of the literature examines how instructional contexts for elementary and secondary level students with learning disabilities have been studied in the past 10 years through a variety of methodological approaches and observation instruments. These studies employed some direct measure of classroom ecology, as well as some measure of the teacher or students' classroom behavior. Information included the time that students were engaged in different activities in different settings, interactions between teachers and students, and students' classroom behavior.     

Person–school environment correlates of children's affective characteristics.

Adopted an interactionism framework to examine relations between children's school-related affective characteristics and measures of intellectual ability and personality (Otis Intermediate Test and Children's Personality Questionnaire—Form A, respectively) at different perceived school environment levels. Data were collected on 255 female and 275 male 12-yr-old Australians. Regression surfaces were constructed from models that examined possible linear, curvilinear, and interaction associations among the variables. A new schedule was developed to measure Ss' perceptions of 4 interrelated school learning contexts (regulative, instructional, imaginative, and interpersonal). Two general propositions are suggested: (a) Changes in person variables are related differentially to affective characteristics depending on the level and nature of the perceived school learning context. (b) Ss' perceptions of school-learning contexts are associated differentially with affective characteristics depending on the level and nature of person variables. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactions of learner characteristics with the difficulty level of the instruction.

Investigated 152 college students' learning from programmed materials varying in redundancy and difficulty level. Measures employed were the Test Anxiety Scale, Achievement Motivation subscale (Personality Research Form), and Scholastic Aptitude Test Verbal and Quantitative subscales and total score. Ss with high achievement needs and low fear of failure did increasingly better on the posttest as the instructional difficulty increased from 6.9 to 40.0% errors. The low-need-achievement, high-fear-of-failure group's performance decreased with an increase in difficulty. Cognitive ability interacted with instructional variables, so that the group scoring high on the Scholastic Aptitude Test performed better than the low when the instruction entailed more errors and less time on task. Qualifications, implications, and the need for considering relevant learner characteristics when prescribing optimal instruction are discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of feedback in learning a vernier discrimination task

We compare improvement through training in vernier acuity under different feedback conditions in order to clarify the role of feedback during learning of a perceptual task and to test different (neural network) models of perceptual learning. Improvement of performance is measured in 49 observers under feedback, no feedback, uncorrelated feedback, partial feedback, and block feedback conditions. Correct feedback conditions yield a larger improvement of performance than manipulated and no feedback conditions. Providing feedback that is uncorrelated to the observers' responses prevents learning, while the effect of block feedback does not differ significantly from complete feedback. Our results cannot be explained by learning rules that depend exclusively on an external teacher or by models that propose learning in an exposure-dependent way with unsupervised learning rules but without top-down influences.     

Introduction to the special section on motivation and efficacy.

This article summarizes the research articles in this special section on motivation and efficacy. These articles stress the idea that motivation and efficacy are interacting mechanisms in views of educational achievement that include learner, social, and instructional variables. An initial sense of efficacy for performing well can motivate learners to act in ways that enhance performance. As students perceive their progress, their sense of efficacy is validated, which sustains motivation. The articles have been clustered around four themes: attributions, learning strategies, learner characteristics, and teacher efficacy. A suggested future research agenda includes models of achievement, student behaviors, and teaching processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring occupational difficulty: A construct validation against training criteria.

Burtch, Lipscomb, and Wissman's (1982) occupational learning difficulty index attempts to measure the difficulty of occupations by aggregating workers' evaluations of task learning time. In the present study we examined the construct validity of this job analysis index. To accomplish this, 48 different occupational training programs were described in terms of 15 training content variables, 6 student characteristics variables, and 7 training performance variables. The results, obtained in a correlational analysis, indicated that the occupational learning difficulty index yielded an interpretable pattern of relationships with the training content and performance variables. We conclude that this task learning time index displays some construct validity as a measure of occupational difficulty and, therefore, should prove of value in designing training, manpower allocation, and job evaluation systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When "light" and "dark" thoughts become light and dark responses: Affect biases brightness judgments.

Metaphors link positive affect to brightness and negative affect to darkness. Research has shown that such mappings are "alive" at encoding in that word-meaning evaluations are faster when font color matches prevailing metaphors (positive = bright; negative = dark). These results, however, involved reaction times, and there are reasons to think that evaluations would be unlikely to influence perceptual judgments, the current focus. Studies 1-3 establish that perceptual judgments were biased in a brighter direction following positive (vs. negative) evaluations, and Study 4 shows that such biases are automatic. The results significantly extend the metaphor representation perspective. Not only do evaluations activate metaphors, but such metaphoric mappings are sufficient to lead individuals to violate input from visual perception when judging an object's brightness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mother–child problem solving: Continuity through the early childhood years.

Maternal ratings of child temperament and observed maternal behaviors in the home were collected when children were 18 months old. Both variables were examined as predictors of mothers' problem solving behaviors with their toddlers at 30 months and the children's independent problem solving at 5 years. Maternal instructional behavior in the home at 18 months and maternal ratings of temperament at 18 months predicted maternal behaviors when the children were 30 months old and child performance in a cognitive problem-solving task. maternal cognitive assistance during the 18- and 30-month tasks also predicted child cognitive task performance in the laboratory at 5 years of age. These same maternal behaviors were related to the child's performance on the Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (D. Wechsler, 1967) at age 5, and lack of maternal assistance was related to teacher ratings of learning problems at age 5. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)