Clinical inferences about depression and physical disability.

Individuals who are physically disabled are often expected to be depressed and to mourn their condition. It is relatively unknown, however, how these expectations influence psychologists' inferences about the emotional status of those who have a physically stigmatizing condition. Sixty-nine doctoral students in the American Psychological Association approved clinical and counseling psychology programs rated their expectations for depression in a person after viewing a videotape of the person in varied conditions of physique and affect. The results indicate that the presence of physical disability did not moderate the assessment of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex of authority role models and achievement by men and women: Leadership performance and recognition.

Investigated whether performance, for both sexes, is conditioned by expectations for them, with expectations being at least partly defined by same-sex role models. 276 undergraduates were exposed to all-male, all-female, or mixed-authority role models and then participated in a 4-person mixed-sex discussion. Vicarious cultural experience of authority models was represented by videotaped reenactments of TV commercials. Ss viewed either 4 traditional commercials showing a man as authority and woman as subordinate, or 4 reversed-role versions in which the male and female actors switched roles in the same scenarios. Personally observed authority models were represented by the experimenter, who supervised the discussion. Sex of authority in the commercials and sex of experimenter were crossed in a factorial design. In the all-male authority condition, men and women performed equally (as measured by talking time and number of substantive content suggestions), but recognized only the men as leaders in postdiscussion evaluation questionnaires. In the all-female authority condition, men and women also performed equally, and, in addition, they also received equal leadership recognition. In the 2 mixed-authority conditions, men objectively outperformed women. The data show that recognition is not a direct function of performance for either sex but is influenced by the evaluators' expectations, which are partly defined by sex of authority role models in the social environment. (103 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in intensity of emotional experience: A social role interpretation.

According to gender role theory, women's greater emotional intensity than men's stems from normative expectations for sex differences that arise as a result of men's and women's social roles. In Exp 1, endorsement of normative expectations for sex differences was associated with sex differences in Ss' own emotions: To the extent that they endorsed stereotypical differences between men and women, female Ss reported personally experiencing emotions of greater intensity and male Ss reported experiencing emotions of lesser intensity. The 2nd study manipulated expectations for responsiveness while Ss viewed a series of emotion-inducing slides. When instructions rendered normative expectations comparable for men and women, no sex differences were obtained in emotion self-reports. Furthermore, women evidenced more extreme electromyograph physiological responding than men, suggesting general sex differences in emotion that are not limited to self-report. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Biases in appraisals of women leaders.

In a variety of group settings, members favor men over women when selecting and evaluating leaders, even when actual leadership behaviors are held constant. Leadership categorization theory (R. B. Lord & K. J. Maher, 1991) and social role theory (A. H. Eagly, 1987) suggest that these biases result from discrepancies between individuals' stereotypes about women and their implicit prototypes of leaders. The authors examined this role-incongruence hypothesis in small groups led by women who adopted a relationship- or task-oriented leadership style. Group members with liberal attitudes regarding women's roles responded positively to both leadership types. Group members with conservative attitudes felt the task-oriented leader was more effective, but they also rated her more negatively on measures of collegiality. These results suggest that individuals' reactions to women leaders are tempered by their expectations about the role of women and men in contemporary society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning disabilities, locus of control, and mother attitudes.

Academic locus of control and mothers' school-related reactions and expectations were studied in 81 learning disabled (LD) and 81 normally achieving (control) children in Grades 3–6. The Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire, the Intellectual subscale of the Parent Reaction Questionnaire, and the Parents Version of the Projected Academic Performance Scale were used. LD Ss indicated more external perceptions of control with respect to successful academic experiences. For failure outcomes, no difference between LD and control Ss was found; however, a trend toward increased internality was noted over grade levels for both groups. Mothers of LD Ss reported more negative and fewer positive reactions to their children. They also held lower academic performance expectations for their children than control mothers. Results are discussed in terms of the need to develop more internal control perceptions in LD children and the role of parental attitudes and expectations in school learning. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress of parent care: Positive and negative effects of women's other roles.

The present study focused on 296 women who were primary caregivers to an ill or disabled parent or parent-in-law and who simultaneously occupied 3 other roles as mother, wife, and employee. All women lived in separate households from their impaired parent and had at least 1 child 25 years of age or younger living at home. It was predicted that stress in the roles of mother, wife, and employee would exacerbate the effects of stress in the parent care role on psychological well-being (depression and life satisfaction) and that rewards in these 3 additional roles would buffer the effects of parent care stress. For all 3 additional roles, findings supported the stress exacerbation hypothesis. In contrast, only the employee role supported the stress-buffering hypothesis. These findings underscore the complex relationships that often exist between women's multiple role experiences and their psychological well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Women's perceptions of personal versus sociocultural counseling interventions.

Two videotaped simulated counseling interventions focusing on weight and body-image concerns were shown to 79 female college students. One of the interventions portrayed the counselor as attributing the weight issues to external, sociocultural causes (i.e., society's unrealistic expectations of women), whereas the other intervention showed the counselor as attributing weight issues to personal causes (i.e., poor eating habits related to a negative self-image). The women's perceptions of and preferences for the intervention were hypothesized to vary as a function of (a) traditionality of sex role attitude, (b) severity of disturbance, and (c) concern for weight and body image. It was hypothesized that women with nontraditional sex role attitudes would prefer the sociocultural intervention, whereas women with traditional sex role attitudes would prefer the personal intervention. The results obtained were opposite those hypothesized. Women with nontraditional sex role attitudes (especially those with highly nontraditional sex role attitudes) preferred the personal intervention. Women with traditional sex role attitudes preferred the sociocultural intervention. This result was more dramatic with those women for whom weight concern was a salient issue. No results were found for severity of disturbance. The results are discussed with respect to feminist counseling and changing sex role expectations in society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Human rights and animal welfare.

Argues for the right of incurably ill or disabled persons to hope for cures or relief from suffering through research using animals. The author, a disabled person himself, is offended that disabled and intractably ill persons and their families, who stand to gain the most by such research, have been ignored in the antivivisection debate. The author notes that disabled persons must speak out for work that affects potential cures or alleviation of suffering; he looks for a compromise that emphasizes human rights while including animal welfare. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client preferences and anticipations in career counseling: A preliminary investigation.

Client expectations have been studied infrequently in career counseling. This study provides preliminary data about precounseling expectations, which were conceptualized as preferences and anticipations. 92 university students (22 men and 70 women) who sought career counseling completed an open-ended questionnaire. Results suggested the following conclusions: (1) Clients have fairly clear ideas about what they want (preferences) from career counseling and about what the experience should be like; (2) clients are somewhat less certain about what the career counseling experience will actually be like (anticipations) and less optimistic about it; (3) a number of mismatches exist between clients' preferences and anticipations; (4) clients do not have well-developed expectations about their dislikes in career counseling; and (5) few differences are evident between clients who have had previous counseling and those who have not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role expectations and ego level in relation to problem marriages.

Compared 52 couples in problem marriages and 55 in nonproblem marriages with respect to degree of agreement between spouses in sex-role expectations, sex-linked self-concepts, and ego development, as measured by, respectively, a new sex-role survey (SRS), the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ), and the Sentence Completion Test (SCT). With regard to differences between spouses, those on the SRS were associated with problem marriage, whereas those on the PAQ and SCT were not. Age differences of spouses were greater in problem marriages. Relations among measured variables were also examined. Among women, an androgynous self-concept was unrelated to androgynous role expectations; among men, there was a small positive correlation. Ego level was positively related to androgynous role expectations but not to androgynous self-concept. Homogamous mating was shown for ego level and sex role expectations but not for personal attributes. An unexpected finding was that mean ego level scores for husbands and wives were identical. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Career self-efficacy expectations and perceived range of career options in community college students.

The first purpose of the present study was to explore the relation of socioeconomic status (SES), race, gender, career self-efficacy, career interests, and sex role orientation to career-choice range in female–male, and non-gender-dominated careers. The second purpose was to determine the relation of SES, race, sex role orientation, gender, and career interests to career self-efficacy. Results indicated that career interest and career self-efficacy expectations significantly predicted range of perceived career options above and beyond the contributions of the other dependent variables. Similarly, career interest and sex role orientation predicted self-efficacy expectations. Recommendations for future investigations of the career self-efficacy model of occupational choice as well as some possible applications of the findings to career counseling are made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychoeducational decision making: Reason for referral versus test data.

60 school and clinical psychologists (mean age 37.6 yrs) participated in a diagnostic simulation designed to investigate the effects of reason for referral (learning vs behavioral problem) and assessment data (learning disabled vs normal) on special education decision making. The type of referral problem did not influence the Ss' decisions; however, the nature of the assessment data had a significant impact. School psychologists who received data from normal children were less likely to hold low future academic expectations, to diagnose the child as handicapped, or to recommend a special education program. Psychologists in both groups were reluctant to label the case study child as handicapped and to recommend special class placement. Ss made decisions reflecting a least restrictive environment perspective, one that is consistent with the intent of current special education legislation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive-motivational characteristics and academic achievement of learning disabled children: A longitudinal study.

Academic self-concept, academic locus of control, and achievement expectations were investigated over a 2-year period for 78 children identified as learning disabled (LD) and 71 non learning disabled, normally achieving children (NLD). The LD children had no remedial program for their learning problems and had not been classified by the schools as LD. The data were collected while the sample was in junior high school. Five schools participated in the project. The results indicated that in comparison with NLD students, the LD children had lower self-perceptions of ability, showed signs of learned helplessness, and reported lower achievement expectations. These differences were well established at the start of Year 1 of the project and remained consistent through to the end of Year 2. The hypothesis that LD children not receiving remedial help would develop increasingly negative affective characteristics was therefore not supported. Correlation and regression data show that academic self-concept scores were the single best predictor of achievement levels. I suggest that negative school-related attitudes develop early in the school lives of LD children and remain negative but consistent through high school. Some consequences for future learning and remedial programming are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributions, expectations, and coping with abortion.

247 women undergoing 1st-trimester abortion were, before the procedure, surveyed regarding their attributions for their pregnancy, expectations for coping, the meaningfulness of the pregnancy, and the degree to which the pregnancy was intended. After the abortion and again at a follow-up visit, affective state, physical complaints, anticipated negative consequences, and depression were assessed. Ss who blamed their pregnancy on their character coped less well than low self-character blamers, but contrary to predictions, self-behavior blame was unrelated to coping. Ss who had high coping expectations before the abortion coped much better than those with low coping expectations. Ss who found their pregnancy highly meaningful, however, coped worse immediately after the abortion than did Ss who found their pregnancy less meaningful. Intentionality of the pregnancy was related to depression (as measured by the short form of the Beck Depression Inventory) 3 wks after the abortion, and Ss accompanied by their partner to the abortion clinic coped less well immediately after the abortion than Ss unaccompanied by their partner. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deinstitutionalization and women: Assessing the consequences of public policy.

Reviews and analyzes the literature concerning deinstitutionalization and women and highlights specific ways in which a major public policy initiative has affected the lives of both chronically mentally ill women and women who have been charged with the responsibility of caring for the chronically mentally ill. Special effects of deinstitutionalization on mentally ill women are evident in such areas as sexual exploitation and violence, homelessness, diversion into the criminal justice system, and stigmatization. A group of studies points to special circumstances pertaining to sexual behavior and reproductive control in a deinstitutionalized female population. It is suggested that the expectations of women's behavior based on societal role definitions have affected service planning for this population and that the use of such criteria for program planning runs the risk of injuring patients of both sexes. The need for more conceptual work and research on deinstitutionalization is stressed; however, because deinstitutionalization is an exceedingly complex phenomenon, the importance of remaining sensitive to the wide variety of circumstances that contribute to its outcomes is emphasized. (72 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of sex role stereotypes on personnel decisions of Black managers.

The influence of sex role stereotypes on the hiring decisions of Black managers was investigated. A 2?×?2?×?2 factorial design and a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were used to analyze the relationship between sex of respondent, sex of applicant, and job sex type. Respondents were 131 managers who rated either a Black man or a Black women for a stereotypically female- or male-sex-typed job on a Likert-type scale. There were significant findings on 3 of the 7 dependent variables: potential to work, potential to complete tasks, and technical potential. Men were rated more favorably for the male-sex-typed job and women were rated more favorably for the female-sex-typed job. However, sex stereotyping was more pronounced for the female-sex-stereotyped job than for the male-sex-stereotyped job on some dependent variables. Results are discussed in regard to the unique experiences of Black men and women in American society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ego development, authoritarianism, and social status: An investigation of the incremental validity of Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test (Short Form).

This study presents two sets of analyses designed to evaluate the relation between a 12-item form of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test of ego development (Short Form; SCT-S) and socioeconomic status (SES). The subjects were a large national random sample of adolescent and young adult men and women who were stratified into three artificial age cohorts. The first set of hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that SES accounted for 8 to 13% of the variance in SCT-S scores. Incremental validity of the SCT-S in predicting social attitudes, beyond that predicted by SES, was generally supported for authoritarian aggression and partially supported in predicting masculine sex role expectations. Findings suggest that research on ego development with subjects over age 18 might use level of education as a rough index of SES. For younger subjects, parental factors and education are both important. This study also provides revised age-specific national norms for the SCT-S. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of another person's response style on interpersonal behavior in depression.

30 depressed and 30 nondepressed undergraduate women, assigned to categories on the basis of their scores on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and a short form of the MMPI, interacted with experimental accomplices who played various interpersonal roles during a laboratory procedure involving "cooperative problem-solving." The roles enacted were critical–competitive, supportive–cooperative, and helpless–dependent. Ss' conversational behaviors, written communications, and postencounter evaluations were analyzed as a function of the personal style portrayed by the accomplice. Results indicate that depressed Ss communicated relatively high levels of self-devaluation, sadness, helplessness, and general negative content to all accomplice roles. The critical–competitive role elicited greater extrapunitiveness among depressives than normal Ss and the helpless–dependent role elicited a greater number of negative self-statements among depressives than normal Ss. Findings are discussed in relation to interactional concepts of depressives' social functioning. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dynamics of scapegoating: The expulsion of evil.

In 8 self-analytic groups, members who were objects of group-wide criticism were studied to determine what kinds of members groups move against. The 1st or only drop-out in 5 groups had been attacked by other members for displaying characteristics similar to the consultant role: analytic, distant, and nondisclosing. Members who behaved counter to sex-role expectations—women expressing anger and men expressing distress—were objects of group-wide attack in all groups. It was theorized that, in the most extreme form, groups act out the myth that their survival depends on some point of view being suppressed; thus, scapegoating reflects a group's interface with its limitations and its mortality. Interventions in the scapegoating process require that a group learn to describe rather than act out the tensions that arise out of internal diversity. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Health-care utilization by disabled persons: a survey in rural Bangladesh

The purpose of the present study was to examine the utilization of health services by disabled persons in rural Bangladesh and to identify associated factors to inform the development of appropriate health services. Household surveys were conducted in two villages of Bangladesh by a trained primary-care specialist who lived in the study area for 4 months. About 81% of the sample had utilized some form of health care with more than half consulting unqualified practitioners of modern medicine. Disabled persons whose families perceived they were disabled were 14 times more likely than others to seek treatment. Being male and in the economically productive age group, having an acquired disability and having some form of belief about disability causation were associated with utilization. The conclusions of the study are that social and cultural barriers prevent certain groups, notably women and demographically dependent age groups, from accessing health care. Those who are economically beneficial to the family usually utilize health services. A combination of educational and economic initiatives such as a disability benefits allowance would strongly promote the health of disabled persons and create a general awareness of disability in Bangladesh. A long-term programme which includes disability training for health-care workers and use of financial institutions and existing local government infrastructure for intensive rehabilitation will improve quality of life for disabled persons and is proposed for urgent implementation.