Study of the hydrodynamic cycle of technical reactors by the use of a radioactive indicator

Conclusion The quantities defining the intensity of internal mixing in reactors with a volume of 76 and 186 liters (filled and empty) are determined by the method of introducing radioactive carbon dioxide C¹⁴O₂ as a tracer.It is shown that in the filled reactor when Re=12, the quantity Pe_L is close to the limiting value, equal to 2; the cycle in this reactor corresponds to ideal displacement.Change of temperature has no effect on mixing in the filled reactor.It is shown that in the empty reactor, when Re changes from 60 to 177 the parameter Pe_L remains almost constant and equal to 0.6. In this case, ideal displacement is not achieved in the empty reactors over the range of Re numbers investigated.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 11, pp. 44–46, November, 1972.     

Production of high-quality catalytic reforming feed stock by deep hydrogenation of secondary-process gasolines

Conclusions As a result of experiments on the deep hydrogenation of thermally cracked gasoline from the visbreaking and delayed coking of tar from high-sulfur Arlan crude on an industrial alumo-cobalt-molybdenum catalyst it was established that to obtain a high-quality feedstock for catalytic reforming from these gasolines the purification must be done in two stages.With purification of the feedstock in Stages I and II it is recommended to maintain, correspondingly, the following parameters: pressure 50 and 30 atm, temperature 380–420 and 380–400°C, space velocity of feed of feed-stock 2 and 5–6 h^–1, circulation of hydrogen containing gas 500 and 100 liter/liter feedstock.After two-stage purification, the catalytic reforming feedstock contains not more than 0.003 wt. % sulfur and 0.0002 wt. % nitrogen; the iodine number does not exceed l g I₂/100 g product.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 4, pp. 1–5, April, 1969.     

Scaled 3-D model studies of immiscible CO2 flooding using horizontal wells

In this study, a comprehensive laboratory investigation was conducted for the recovery of heavy oil from a scaled three-dimensional (3-D) physical model, packed with 18° API gravity crude oil, brine and crushed limestone. A total of 20 experiments were conducted using the scaled 3-D physical model with 30×30×6 cm³ dimensions. Basically, four different immiscible CO₂–water displacement processes were used for recovering heavy oil: (i) continuous CO₂ injection, (ii) waterflooding, (iii) simultaneous injection of CO₂ and water, and (iv) water alternating gas (WAG) process. Three groups of well configurations were mainly used: (1) vertical injection and vertical production wells, (2) vertical injection and horizontal production wells, and (3) horizontal injection and horizontal production wells. Base experiments were run with water only and carbon dioxide alone and optimum rates for WAG and simultaneous water–CO₂ injection were determined. In continuous CO₂ injection, highest recovery was obtained by vertical injection–horizontal production (VI–HP), followed by vertical injection–vertical production (VI–VP) and the least by horizontal injection–horizontal production (HI–HP). In VI–HP configuration, the best recovery was obtained as 15.1% OOIP. Higher oil recovery was obtained with a VI–HP wells than with a pair of vertical wells and horizontal wells. The WAG 1:5 ratio yielded a final recovery of 34.5% OOIP with VI–VP well configuration and 17.0% OOIP of additional recovery over waterflooding. In turn, the WAG 1:10 ratio was the best with a final recovery of 20.9% of OOIP with VI–HP well configuration. Oil production from WAG injection is higher than that obtained from the injection of continuous CO₂ or waterflooding alone.     

Calculating the products of high-temperature conversion of methane under pressure

Summary The authors show that in calculating the equilibrium composition of the products of conversion of methane by oxygen under a pressure of P_abs = 300 kg/cm² the results are the same whether or not use is made of the volatilities of the components.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 2, pp. 12–14, February, 1967.     

Use of natural geochemical tracers to improve reservoir simulation models

This article introduces a methodology for integrating geochemical data in reservoir simulations to improve hydrocarbon reservoir models. The method exploits routine measurements of naturally existing inorganic ion concentration in hydrocarbon reservoir production wells, and uses the ions as non-partitioning water tracers. The methodology is demonstrated on a North Sea field case, using the field's reservoir model, together with geochemical information (SO₄²⁻, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations) from the field's producers. Based on the dataset, some of the ions are shown to behave almost as ideal seawater tracers, i.e. without sorption to the matrix, ion exchange with the matrix or scale formation with other ions in the formation water. Moreover, the dataset shows that ion concentrations in pure formation water vary according to formation. This information can be used to allocate produced water to specific water-producing zones in commingled production. Based on an evaluation of the available data, one inorganic component, SO₄²⁻, is used as a natural seawater tracer. Introducing SO₄²⁻ as a natural tracer in a tracer simulation has revealed a potential for improvements of the reservoir model. By tracking the injected seawater it was possible to identify underestimated fault lengths in the reservoir model. The demonstration confirms that geochemical data are valuable additional information for reservoir characterization, and shows that integration of geochemical data into reservoir simulation procedures can improve reservoir simulation models.     

Study of the hydrodynamics and mass transfer on a tangential plate

Summary The hydrodynamics and mass transfer during desorption of CO₂ by air from water on a tangential plate have been studied at gas flow rates ranging from 0.6 to 3.5 m/sec and irrigation densities ranging from 6 to 22 m³/m²·h; these experiments have shown that the mass transfer and plate efficiency coefficients of the plate considered are high up to 3.5 m/sec air flow rate (referred to the empty column).Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 8, pp. 36–39, August, 1966.     

Determination of process conditions for alkylation of toluene with ethylene and propylene on Al2O3 promoted with boron fluoride

It had been shown previously [1–3] that commercial A1₂O₃ promoted with boron fluoride is an active catalyst for the alkylation of aromatic hydrocarbons with olefins. In this article, we are presenting results from a study of the alkylation of toluene with ethylene and propylene, directed toward the production of ethyltoluenes and cymenes.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 12, pp. 5–8, December, 1973.     

Modernizing Cat Cracker Reactor Block Units on the G-43-107M/1

Modernization of cat cracker reactor block equipment in the G-43-107M/1 combined unit, which significantly increases the unit’s efficiency and reliability, is described.__________Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 3, pp. 12 – 14, May – June, 2005.     

Revamping of the catalytic cracking reactor block on the G-43-107M/1 unit. Second stage

Revamping of the catalytic cracking reactor block on the combined G-43-107M/1 unit with introduction of a set of new technological elements and equipment units that significantly increase the efficiency and reliability of operation of the unit and create conditions for its conversion to two-year operation between maintenances is described.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 1, pp. 25 – 28, January – February, 2005.     

Sulfuric Acid Alkylation of Isobutane by Olefins. Experience in Operation of a Jet Mixing Reactor

Experience in operating a sulfuric–acid alkylation jet reactor of new design — with no mixers and heat–exchange bank and a process scheme that includes this reactor, a hydrocyclone, three–phase separator, and circulating centrifugal pumps are described. An additional quantity of feedstock is added to the jet reactor operating in tandem with a cascade reactor without addition of circulating isobutane. The concentration of high–octane components in the products of the reaction, i.e., the alkylate production volume, increases. The results of operating the jet reactor in incorporation of propylene feedstock from the cascade reactor to butylene alkylate are reported. The additional volume of propylene alkylate is up to 1/3 of the total output of the unit, distillation is improved, and the Motor Octane Number decreases insignificantly — by a maximum of 0.5 points.     

Method of determination of trace quantities of copper,lead, and zinc in naphthas

Summary A procedure has been developed for the spectral determination of trace-contaminant copper, lead, and arsenic in naphthas; the method consists of dropping a sample of naphtha into a heated electrode, thus evaporating the naphtha, and then photographing the spectrum of the dry residue. The conditions that were chosen, particularly the use of an appropriate buffer, have made it possible to achieve the following sensitivities in the determination: Copper 2·10^–8%, lead 5·10^–8%, and arsenic 1 ·10^–7%, The respective coefficients of variation in the determinations of these elements are 26, 30, and 25%.The method is being used at BashNII NP for regular quality control on the feedstock entering the catalytic reforming unit of the Novo-Ufa refinery.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 4, pp. 55–59, April, 1973.     

Modernization of a Reformer Unit with a Lower Operating Pressure

Modernization of the first-stage of the L–35–11/1000 plant of the OAO Angarskaya neftekhimicheskaya kompaniya [Angarskaya Petrochemical Company (Open Joint Stock Company)] reduced the pressure in the reformer unit from 2.3 to 1.7 MPa and the hydrogenous gas circulation ratio, from 1550 to 1100 m³/m³. The catalyzate yield increased by 2.1 wt.% while the motor octane number (MON) increased by 1.6. After the second stage of the highly efficient domestic catalysts KR–108U and RB–22U fed into the reformer unit will increase the reformate yield with MON=87 to 89 wt. %. Catalyzate from the L–35–11/100 plant is the main component of high-octane gasolines in the Angarskaya Petrochemical Company. This typical plant was built during the development of the country's catalytic reformer technology [1] according to a design by Lengiproneftekhim (Leningrad State Institute for the Design of Oil Refining and Petrochemical Plants). Initially, the intention was to use the aluminoplatinum catalyst AP–64 in the reforming of hydrofined feedstock in the following mode: reactor pressure in the last stage 3.5 MPa, feedstock volumetric flow rate 1.2 h^–1, and hydrogenous gas (HG) circulation ratio 1800m³/m³. The process flow diagram, however, made no provision for booster compressors for the excess HG. As a result substantial lowering of the pressure in the reformer unit was not possible when the plant was switched to more stable polymetal catalysts [2].     

Spectral determination of sodium in distillate gas turbine fuels

Summary A method for the quantitative determination of sodium in distillate gas turbine fuels without their prior ashing has been developed. The sensitivity of reliable determinations (maintaining a straight line for the calibration curve in S-log C coordinates) is 10^–1% Standard equipment and simple methods have been used.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 8, pp. 53–55, August, 1967.     

New wettability test for chalk based on chromatographic separation of SCN and SO4

Wettability, water-wetness or oil-wetness, is usually defined in terms of the method used to determine the wetting state of a porous medium. In the Amott test, which is most frequently used for porous media, the wetting indices of water and oil are determined by the extent of spontaneous imbibition of water and oil from the state of the corresponding residual fluid saturations of the core. Thus, the Amott fluid wetting index reflects the potential capillary energy associated with the spontaneous imbibition process, which results in a very insensitive way to detect wetting alterations close to neutral conditions. Unfortunately, the natural wetting state of many carbonate reservoirs is close to neutral conditions or preferential oil-wet. In this paper, the wetting state of porous chalk is characterized by the fraction of surface area covered by one of the two fluids, i.e. water or oil. As the new wettability test is based on the chromatographic separation of two water-soluble components, i.e. a tracer, SCN⁻, and a potential determining ion towards chalk, SO₄²⁻, the fraction of the surface area covered by water was decided to represent the new wetting index. Using a chalk core at residual oil saturation, the area between the effluent curves for SCN⁻ and SO₄²⁻ is proportional to the area contacted by water during the flooding process. The ratio between this area and the corresponding area obtained from a completely water-wet core will give a water index between 0 and 1, representing completely oil-wet and completely water-wet conditions, respectively. The method is excellent to be used close to neutral condition, which will give a wetting index of 0.5. Experimental results are presented for two different chalks at different wetting conditions. Furthermore, the change in the Zeta-potential of the chalk surface over the dispersion zone of SO₄²⁻ is visualised by a gradient in the Ca²⁺ concentration in the same region.     

Statistical analysis of the porous microstructure as a method for estimating reservoir permeability

Back-scatter scanning electron microscope images of cross-sections of several porous rocks were analyzed to determine the statistical properties of the porous microstructure. For statistically homogeneous media these properties are the porosity and autocorrelation function. A length scale (integral correlation scale), characteristic of the spatial distribution of porosity, was obtained as the integral of the autocorrelation function. The permeability of a wide variety of rock samples, including those investigated by Coskun and Wardlaw (1993), was adequately described by an empirical equation of the form k α φ^aI_S^b, where φ is the porosity and I_S is the integral correlation scale. The results obtained have useful application in the estimation of reservoir permeability from samples not amenable to experimental testing (e.g., drill cuttings) and provide support for the use of statistical methods for the generation of 3-D model porous media.     

Rapid group analysis of straight-run petroleum cuts by liquid-adsorption chromatography (LAC) with automatic recording

Summary A method of quantitative group analysis has been developed for bicyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with a minimum content of these hydrocarbons (down to 0.2%) in kerosine and kerosine-gas oil distillates, and also for the analysis of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in naphtha cuts, by a recording method of column liquid-adsorption chromatography (LAC) on-Al₂O₃ in a stream of n-hexane or petroleum ether. The analysis requires 20–25 min, and the chromatographic column can be used repeatedly.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 4, pp. 51–53, April, 1974.     

Quantification and variability of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus cross-contamination during serving and consumption of cooked thick porridge in Lungwena rural households, Malawi

The study investigated bacterial transfer to cooked thick porridge via ladles and hands during serving in 29 households in Lungwena, rural Malawi. Household stored water used for hand and ladle washing, was contaminated with Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus. aureus from hands of members of the household or from contaminated ladles used in food preparation. The results showed that hands became contaminated with E. coli and S. aureus cells in the range 0.6–3.7 and 2.2–4.3 log₁₀ CFU/cm², respectively, following washing with the contaminated water. Ladles became contaminated with 0.9–3.2 log₁₀ CFU/cm² of E. coli cells whereas contamination with S. aureus on ladles ranged between 1.9 and 4.6 log₁₀ CFU/cm². Bacterial transfer from hands to food ranged from <1 to 3.6 log₁₀ CFU/g for E. coli and 2.1 to 4.2 log₁₀ CFU/g for S. aureus. Ladle surfaces transferred from 1.3 to 3.1 and from 1.2 to 4.3 log₁₀ CFU/g of E. coli and S. aureus, respectively, on to the food. Contamination of food by hands was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of ladles and transfer of S. aureus was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of E. coli. The amount of bacteria transferred to the recipient depended on the wash water type and bacteria type. The study has demonstrated that although the traditional cooking of thick porridge inactivates S. aureus and E. coli, the porridge can be contaminated with bacteria during consumption using hands and serving on to a plate with wooden ladles.     

Ethylene epoxidation under the effect of gas phase thermal oxidation of methane

The process of ethylene epoxidation under the effect of gas phase thermal oxidation of methane has been studied. It was shown that if methane oxidation is carried out in the first section of two-sectional reactor and ethylene is injected into the second section then epoxidation occurs as a result of interaction of ethylene and peroxy radicals generated by methane oxidation reaction. The dependence of ethylene oxide accumulation rate on methane/oxygen ratio in the first section of reactor as well as flow velocity and temperatures in the first and second sections has been studied. The results show that in the second section of the reactor the ethylene epoxidation takes place trough C₂H₄ + RO₂^· → C₂H₄O + RO reaction.     

A spectroscopic study of the structure of the barium salt of p-isononylphenol sulfide

Conclusions The barium salt of p-isononylphenol sulfide, one of a series of current motor oil additives, has been characterized on the basis of its infrared spectrum, as have phenol, p-isononylphenol, p-isononylphenol sulfide, and barium isononylphenolate, which are involved in its synthesis as precursors or by-products. The extent of conversion of pisononylphenol sulfide to the corresponding barium salt may be characterized by the decrease in intensity of the OH group absorption bands at 3400 and 1175 cm^–1, corresponding to stretching and bending vibrational modes, respectively. The 1175 cm^–1 band may be used for kinetic studies and control analyses of the synthesis of the barium salt of p-isononylphenol sulfide.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 4, pp. 21–24, April, 1969.     

Rapid determination of fractional composition of C10-C16 and C17-C20 synthetic fatty acid fractions in the “Tsvet-1” chromatograph

Conclusions A rapid method has been developed for the chromatographic determination of the fractional composition of C₁₀-C₁₆ and C₁₇-C₂₀ synthetic fatty acid fractions in the form of the methyl esters, using the Tsvet-1 chromatograph at a single temperature. The time required for analysis is 55–60 min.Translated from Khimiya i Tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel, No. 4, pp. 51–53, April, 1972.