Androgyny and helping behavior.

Suggests that sex differences found in previous studies of how bystanders' help in emergency situations may have been due to Ss' following sex-role expectations for this type of situation. To study this possibility, 78 male and 82 female undergraduates, classified by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) as either androgynous or sex-typed, participated in an experiment in which a "victim" choked on food. Ss were either alone with the victim, with 4 other same-sex confederates, or with 4 other mixed-sex confederates. Data on speed of helping and/or proportion of Ss helping show (a) more help by males than by females, (b) more help in S-alone conditions than in larger group conditions, and (c) more help by androgynous than by sex-typed Ss. The pattern of direct, indirect, or no help differed between sex-typed males and females but not between androgynous males and females. Questionnaire data support the notion of diffusion of responsibility for the group-size effect for helping. Several of the sex effects suggested that instrumental competence is the crucial variable in dealing with emergencies. Results also suggest that such competence is due to masculinity rather than sex per se. Findings provide substantial construct validation for androgyny theory and for the BSRI as a measure of androgyny. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Help is where you find it: Four informal helping groups.

Investigated the nature of help-giving provided by 90 hairdressers, 62 family-practice attorneys, 97 industrial supervisors, and 76 bartenders. It was found that moderate to serious personal problems were raised with all groups, but particularly with hairdressers and lawyers. Although those problems in the aggregate were similar to those brought to mental health professionals, somewhat different problems came up with different groups. Ss used a variety of handling strategies, some of which were similar to those used by mental health professionals. The special ecologies of the several situations related both to the number of personal problems raised and to how they were handled. Most Ss felt good about providing interpersonal help and believed that they did so moderately well. It is concluded that more precise knowledge of society's de facto help-giving mechanisms is an essential precondition for rational future planning by mental health professionals. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-focused attention and helping behavior.

Conducted 4 experiments that examined the role of self-directed attention in prosocial behavior. In the 1st 2 experiments, in which only focus of attention was varied, self-awareness had a debilitating impact on prosocial behavior. In subsequent research, conditions were created under which self-focus enhanced prosocial behavior. Two such conditions are identified, both of which concern whether the potential helper is likely to focus on helping-relevant values at the moment the opportunity to help arises: (a) The situation must clearly set off an orientation toward acting on a value of helping; that is, the cue to help must be legitimate as well as salient. (b) The person who is called upon to act prosocially must not come into the helping situation with a personal preoccupation that would be inimical to thinking about helping. The research is discussed in terms of its relevance to the early thinking of the symbolic interactionist school, and it is oriented around the theory of self-awareness. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development and application of a classification scheme of informal helping behaviours.

Presents a classification scheme of 26 helping behaviors that were empirically generated and reliably coded by a team of 3 judges, based on a content analysis of interview protocols. The protocols describe the types of informal social support provided to a sample of 40 single mothers. The categories are organized into 4 main classes of influence, and each category is defined and illustrated with an example taken from the protocols. To illustrate one application of the scheme, data are presented contrasting the helping behaviors extended to the Ss in response to 3 problem areas. Methods of further validating the scheme and evaluating the efficacy of informal social support are discussed. (French summary) (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal helping behavior of industrial foremen.

97 25–45 yr old foremen from 7 companies completed a 20-item (many with subparts) questionnaire that inquired about the nature and frequency of their helping contacts with supervisees experiencing personal problems. Ss spent an average of 2.5 hrs/wk discussing moderate-to-serious personal problems raised by their supervisees. Although work-related problems (e.g., job dissatisfactions, difficulties with fellow employees, and concerns about advancement opportunities) came up most often, supervisees also raised more personal concerns (e.g., marital problems, problems with children, and depression). Ss used various handling strategies to engage such problems including offering support and sympathy, asking questions, and trying to get them to consider alternatives. Most Ss felt positively about being cast in the interpersonal helper role and considered that to be an important part of their job. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temperament and helping behavior in preschool children.

This study investigated the idea that children's temperaments, in interaction with situational factors, are related to their helping behavior. Twenty-four preschool children were each presented with four opportunities for helping a female adult during a play session in the laboratory, while their mothers rated the children's helpfulness at home. Multiple measures of sociability as well as a broad temperament measure called social adaptability were gathered from mothers and preschool teachers, some several months prior to the laboratory session and some concurrent with it. The primary hypothesis that sociable children would appear to be more helpful than less sociable children was supported for helpfulness in the laboratory, but not at home. It was suggested that this was because in the laboratory the person needing help was unfamiliar, which may have differentially affected the sociable and unsociable children. Preliminary evidence suggested an association between discipline techniques reportedly used by mothers and their children's temperaments. Possible mechanisms by which temperament could mediate prosocial behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The health and wellbeing of informal caregivers: a review and study program

EPR studies of bacterioferritin (BFR), an iron-storage protein of Escherichia coli [1993, Biochem. J. 292, 47-56], have revealed the presence of non-haem iron (III) (NHI) sites within the protein coat which may be involved in iron uptake and release. When nitric oxide was used as an EPR spin probe of the Fe(II) state of the NHI sites, two distinct mononuclear NHI species were found. Under certain conditions, an iron dimer was also observed. The reaction of phosphate with NHI species has been investigated. Results point to a function for this anion in core nucleation.     

Positive mood and helping behavior: A test of six hypotheses.

Past research has shown rather consistently that positive mood states lead to increased helpfulness. In an expanded analysis of the published literature, we examined six distinct views about this relation: the focus of attention, objective self-awareness, separate process, social outlook, mood maintenance, and concomitance hypotheses. For each of 61 positive affect conditions in which it was possible to generate an effect-size estimate corresponding to the relative degree of helpfulness exhibited by positive mood subjects (compared with neutral affect subjects), judges assessed the contextual levels of variables relevant to each of the six hypotheses by reading the Method section of each article. Higher-order partial correlation coefficients were then calculated to isolate the independent contribution of each of the theoretically relevant variables to the variation among the 61 effect sizes. The results support the focus of attention, separate process, social outlook, and mood maintenance hypotheses, and partially support the objective self-awareness and concomitance hypotheses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature.

Contends, on the basis of posited social-role theory of gender and helping, that the male gender role fosters helping that is heroic and chivalrous, whereas the female gender role fosters helping that is nurturant and caring. In social psychological studies, helping behavior has mainly been examined in the context of short-term encounters with strangers. This focus has tended to exclude from the research literature those helping behaviors prescribed by the female gender role, because they are displayed primarily in long-term, close relationships. In contrast, the helping behaviors prescribed by the male gender role have been generously represented in research findings because they are displayed in relationships with strangers as well as in close relationships. Results from a meta-analytic review of sex differences in 172 studies (appended) in helping behavior indicate that in general men helped more than women and women received more help than men. Nevertheless, sex differences in helping were inconsistent across studies and were successfully predicted by various attributes of the studies and the helping behaviors. (96 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent prosocial behavior: Peer-group and situational factors associated with helping.

90 8th graders were rated by peers on sociometric dimensions of helpful and popular (and their converses) and were each observed or rated on 6 helping tasks in the school setting that differed in terms of perceived demand characteristics. In general, sociometric nominations were accurate in predicting who was not behaviorally helpful—those Ss rated as the unpopular and unhelpful. Sociometric status of Ss rated more positively by peers did not predict well the level of behavioral performance. To examine the interaction between peer-group status and helping behavior, the most helpful Ss were divided into 2 groups on the basis of peer status. There were significant differences in the types of situations in which these 2 groups performed: More popular helpers scored higher on peer-related helping tasks, whereas less popular helpers were more facilitative in non-peer-related helping tasks. Implications for individual socialization and future research in helping behavior are discussed in relation to peer-group status. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive appraisals and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in informal caregivers of stroke survivors.

Objective: To examine associations between cognitive appraisals (i.e., negative appraisals about the self, negative appraisals about the world, and self-blame) and the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in informal caregivers (i.e., family relatives or close associates) of stroke survivors. Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted in which informal caregivers (N = 51) of recent stroke survivors completed the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale and the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory. Results: PTSD symptom severity correlated significantly with the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory Self, World, and Self-Blame subscales and with time since stroke and age (negative relationship). Cognitive appraisals explained 58% of the variance in PTSD symptom severity. Conclusion: The associations found between negative cognitive appraisals and the severity of PTSD symptoms are consistent with current cognitive models of PTSD and the recommended use of trauma-related cognitive–behavioral therapy for individuals with PTSD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-focus, felt responsibility, and helping behavior.

Two experiments, each with 55 female undergraduates, investigated whether juxtaposing self-focus and salient distressed others would (a) increase self-attribution of responsibility for those needy others and (b) increase willingness to help those others. In Exp I, Ss were exposed to their images on a TV screen 4 min before, immediately before, immediately after, or 4 min after seeing a videotape of victims of a venereal disease epidemic. As predicted, Ss who saw their images immediately before or after felt more responsibility for and were more willing to help the victims than were Ss in other conditions. In Exp II, Ss filled out a biographical questionnaire either 4 min before or immediately before seeing a videotape on poverty-stricken Latin Americans. Results confirm predictions. Ss who filled out the questionnaire immediately before the videotape felt more responsibility toward the distressed group than Ss who completed the questionnaire 4 min prior to the tape. Additional evidence indicates that this effect is probably not mediated by the sole operation of the self-evaluative mechanism posited by S. Duval and R. Wicklund (1972) or by change in attitudes regarding the distress of and/or necessity of helping distressed others. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inappropriate helping behavior and its impact on the identified patient.

Presents an integrative approach to understanding and treating inappropriate helping relationships that can be applied both to the professional field (known as "helping syndrome") and to the marital and family environment ("contributors"). Examples illustrate typical colluding behaviors related to alcoholism, depression, and psychosomatic disorders. Psychodynamic perspectives are reviewed to describe the helper's personality and his/her underlying shortcomings. However, perspectives that focus solely on the individual are viewed as limited and incomplete. Systems theory contributes communicational and interpersonal knowledge. A resultant synthesis is proposed as an alternative. Situational, interactional, and intrapersonal influences on helping behavior are integrated within a transtheoretical framework. A questionnaire is included to facilitate exploration on maladaptive helping behavior. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal behavior of helpers in initial helping interactions.

Although helper nonverbal behavior presumably is important for effective helping, few studies have examined its importance for clients in actual helping interactions. In the present study with 168 undergraduates, several nonverbal behaviors of helpers in a small group were tallied and related to independent judgments of the helper made by observers and the person being helped. Trained observers' ratings of overall effectiveness were related to frequency of smiling and nodding. Ratings made by other group members also showed significant relationships to the nonverbal behaviors. Helpee-related understanding and warmth correlated with frequency of helper nodding. The low but significant correlations suggest that nonverbal behaviors are but one set of cues that lead to clients' first impressions of their helpers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Weather, mood, and helping behavior: Quasi experiments with the sunshine samaritan.

Conducted 2 field studies on the relationship of weather variables to helping behavior. In Study 1 (540 adult Ss), which was executed in the spring and summer and subsequently replicated in the winter, the amount of sunshine reaching the earth was found to be a strong predictor of an S's willingness to assist an interviewer. Smaller relationships were also found between helping and temperature, humidity, wind velocity, and lunar phase. Exp II was conducted indoors with 130 dining parties to control for comfort factors. Sunshine, lunar phase, and S's age and sex were found to predict the generosity of the tip left for a restaurant waitress. Sunshine and temperature were also significantly related to the 6 waitresses' self-reports of mood. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motives for helping behavior: Kibbutz and city children in kindergarten and school.

Studied the motives for helping expressed by 80 children 4–5? and 7–8? yrs of age. Half of each age group were from a kibbutz and half from a city. Half of each group were boys, half girls. Ss were presented with 3 pictures depicting 3 situations in which one child had an opportunity to help. They were asked whether the child in the picture would help and if so, what the child's motive would be for such an action. They were also asked questions regarding motives for helping behavior in general. Three hypotheses were stated: (1) Older Ss would express higher-level motives for helping than younger Ss. (2) Kibbutz Ss would express higher-level motives than city Ss. (3) Girls would express higher-level motives than boys. Only the 1st hypothesis was confirmed. No differences were found between kibbutz and city Ss or between boys and girls. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of urban residence on interpersonal trust and helping behavior.

Existing research suggested the hypothesis that urban residents exhibit less trusting and helpful behavior than nonurban residents, but residents of different places differ little in trusting or helpful attitudes or dispositions. Using willingness to be interviewed as a measure of trusting or helpful behavior, this hypothesis was largely confirmed in analyses of data from a series of surveys of representative samples of the adult US population between 1952 and 1972. However, the results also show that differences in trusting and helpful behavior (i.e., refusal rates) between places of residence have become pronounced only in the late 1960s. Finally, analyses indicated that differences in refusal rates over places and times were largely due to variations in reported crime rates, rather than in population size, density, and heterogeneity, which have been the focus of traditional urban social psychology. Methodological and substantive implications of the findings are discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Productivity and extra-role behavior: The effects of goals and incentives on spontaneous helping.

Examined the effects of goals and monetary incentives on performance and extra-role behavior. 154 Ss worked on an order-processing task for 20 min under easy, moderate, or difficult goals and were paid either a flat rate or a bonus for goal attainment. During the experimental task, a confederate co-worker attempted to elicit help from the S. Results indicate that goals were positively related to performance, that goals were negatively related to extra-role behavior among individuals committed to the goals, and that the lowest extra-role behavior was observed among Ss assigned to difficult goals and paid on the basis of goal attainment. Implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of task interdependence on the relationship between helping behavior and group performance.

The authors examine whether task interdependence moderates the relationship between the helping form of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and group performance. In a laboratory study, 62 groups with 3 members each completed a card-sequencing activity in which the level of task interdependence among group members was manipulated. Independent evaluators assessed helping by viewing videotapes of the groups' interactions during the sequencing activities. Performance was measured as a combined function of group speed and accuracy. Two prior field studies reported contradictory results regarding the impact of helping on group performance. Results from this study suggest that task interdependence may explain these results, and that the relationship between helping and group performance depends on the level of task interdependence required of group members. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses to depressed interpersonal behavior: Mixed reactions in a helping role.

We placed 144 female subjects in a helping role and randomly assigned them to interact with a confederate in a 3?×?3?×?2?×?2 (Psychopathology?×?Blaming?×?Advice Seeking?×?Sex of Confederate) factorial design. In order to study behaviors that mediate interpersonal responses to depression, male and female confederates enacted depressed, anxious, or normal roles and blamed themselves, others, or no one for their problems. The confederates requested advice in half of the conditions. Results indicated that depressed confederates were rejected more on questionnaire measures; however, depressed confederates received more conversational advice and support from subjects than did the equally disturbed anxious confederates. The self-blaming and advice-seeking manipulations did not interact with depression to produce more negative reactions in subjects. There was no evidence of a negative mood induction in subjects, nor did the sex of the confederate have important interpersonal consequences. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical and methodological issues in studies of interpersonal factors in depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)