Interfacial indentation and shear tests to determine the adhesion of thermal spray coatings

Adhesion is one of the most important parameters which influences the development of thermal spray coatings. Therefore, the level of adhesion should be known for a given application. Apart from the standardized Tensile Adhesive Test (TAT), more than 80 methods are reported to measure the coating adhesion. Most of them are energy consuming in terms of time, cost and equipment. Moreover, they do not fulfil the necessary requirements of accuracy, confidence and representation of the real delamination process observed in service. To address this problem, the interfacial indentation test is used here to initiate and propagate a crack at the interface between the substrate and the coating. Studying the extension of the crack, an interfacial toughness is defined and deduced analytically from the experimental results. The new shear test, developed in the frame of the EU-CRAFT-project “Shear Test for Thermally Sprayed Coatings”, is also employed to assess the coating adhesion. Both tests are compared to the standardized TAT for various spraying systems, materials, substrate roughness and coating thickness. Advantages and disadvantages of the three tests are discussed. Correlations between the tests results obtained for different coating-substrate combinations are presented and general trends are described.     

Sliding wear behavior of tungsten carbide thermal spray coatings for replacement of chromium electroplate in aircraft applications

Tungsten carbide (WC) thermal spray coatings have gained increased acceptance for commercial aircraft applications driven by the desire to replace chromium electroplate due to environmental and economic considerations. In order to confidently replace electroplated chrome with WC thermal spray coatings in aircraft applications, the coatings must demonstrate fatigue and wear characteristics as good as or better than those of electroplated chrome. Previous research in this area has shown that the fatigue life of the WC thermal spray coatings can be improved by inducing compressive residual stresses in the coating. This paper compares the wear characteristics of several types of WC thermal spray coatings with those of electroplated chrome in sliding wear tests using the “block-on-ring” procedures described in the ASTM G77 standard. Wear results are interpreted in terms of coating residual stresses and in terms of x-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses.     

An improved specimen geometry for ASTM C633-79 to estimate bond strengths of thermal spray coatings

ASTM Standard C633-79, “Standard Test Method for Adhesion or Cohesive Strength of Flame-Sprayed Coatings,” is widely used in industry and research for evaluating bond strengths of thermal spray coatings. Tests are conducted by applying the coating to the end of a cylindrical test specimen 25.4 mm (1 in.) in diameter by 25.4 mm (1 in.) long. The coating surface is bonded to an uncoated cylinder of the same material and geometry. The force required to pull the cylinders apart is recorded. The bond strength is calculated by dividing the maximum force by the area of the 1 -in. diameter cylinder assuming that the stress is uniform over the area where the debonding occurs. A combination of finite-element stress analysis and experimental stress analysis using strain gages was used to evaluate the stresses at the interface between the coating and substrate. Finite-element analysis of the standard specimen geometry shows that the maximum stress at the coating interface can be 25 % higher than the average stress. An elongated specimen was selected, constructed, and evaluated to produce the uniform stress distribution assumed by ASTM C633-79. Strain gage measurements and epoxy tensile tests have verified that the bond strengths measured with the elongated specimen provide better estimates of bond strengths than tests with the standard specimen.     

Selection criteria for wear resistant powder coatings under extreme erosive wear conditions

Wear-resistant thermal spray coatings for sliding wear are hard but brittle (such as carbide and oxide based coatings), which makes them useless under impact loading conditions and sensitive to fatigue. Under extreme conditions of erosive wear (impact loading, high hardness of abrasives, and high velocity of abradant particles), composite coatings ensure optimal properties of hardness and toughness. The article describes tungsten carbide-cobalt (WC-Co) systems and self-fluxing alloys, containing tungsten carbide based hardmetal particles [NiCrSiB-(WC-Co)] deposited by the detonation gun, continuous detonation spraying, and spray fusion processes. Different powder compositions and processes were studied, and the effect of the coating structure and wear parameters on the wear resistance of coatings are evaluated. The dependence of the wear resistance of sprayed and fused coatings on their hardness is discussed, and hardness criteria for coating selection are proposed. The so-called “double cemented” structure of WC-Co based hardmetal or metal matrix composite coatings, as compared with a simple cobalt matrix containing particles of WC, was found optimal. Structural criteria for coating selection are provided. To assist the end user in selecting an optimal deposition method and materials, coating selection diagrams of wear resistance versus hardness are given. This paper also discusses the cost-effectiveness of coatings in the application areas that are more sensitive to cost, and composite coatings based on recycled materials are offered.     

Microstructure and abrasion resistance of plasma sprayed titania coatings

Agglomerated titania nanopowder and a “classical” titania were sprayed by the high throughput water-stabilized plasma (WSP) and thoroughly compared. Optical microscopy with image analysis as well as mercury intrusion porosimetry were used for quantification of porosity. Results indicate that the “nano” coatings in general exhibit finer pores than coatings of the “conventional” micron-sized powders. Mechanical properties such as Vickers microhardness and slurry abrasion response were measured and linked to the structural investigation. Impact of the variation in the slurry composition on wear resistance of tested coatings and on character of the wear damage is discussed. The overall results, however, suggest that the “nano” coatings properties are better only for carefully selected sets of spraying parameters, which seem to have a very important impact. This article was originally published inBuilding on 100 Years of Success, Proceedings of the 2006 International Thermal Spray Conference (Seattle, WA), May 15–18, 2006, B.R. Marple, M.M. Hyland, Y.-Ch. Lau, R.S. Lima, and J. Voyer, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2006.     

The adhesion strength and indentation toughness of plasma-sprayed yttria stabilized zirconia coatings

In this work, yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) coatings were deposited by atmospheric plasma spray (APS) technique under various powder feed rates and spray distances. The microstructure and phase analysis were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Tensile adhesion test (TAT) and interfacial indentation test (IIT) methods were used to evaluate adhesion of coatings. The effect of spray parameters on the coatings adhesion as well as its toughness was investigated. The obtained results revealed that with increasing powder feed rate and spray distance, adhesion of the coatings reaches to a maximum and then reduces. Interfacial toughness values change in the same manner. Adhesion/toughness behaviors of the YSZ coatings were related to microstructural characteristics including the volume fraction and size of pores and unmelted particles.     

A cantilever beam method for evaluating Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of thermal spray coatings

Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for thermal spray coatings are needed to evaluate properties and characteristics of thermal spray coatings such as residual stresses, fracture toughness, and fatigue crack growth rates. It is difficult to evaluate Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of thermal spray coatings be-cause coatings are usually thin and attached to a thicker and much stiffer substrate. Under loading, the substrate restricts the coating from deforming. Since coatings are used while bonded to a substrate, it is desirable to have a procedure to evaluate Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio in situ. The cantilever beam method to evaluate the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of thermal spray coat-ings is presented. The method uses strain gages located on the coating and substrate surfaces. A series of increasing loads is applied to the end of the cantilever beam. The moment at the gaged section is calcu-lated. Using a laminated plate bending theory, the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio are inferred based on a least squares fit of the equilibrium equations. The method is verified by comparing predicted values of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio with reference values from a three-dimensional finite ele-ment analysis of the thermal spray coated cantilever beam. The sensitivity of the method is examined with respect to the accuracy of measured quantities such as strain gage readings, specimen dimensions, ap-plied bending moment, and substrate mechanical properties. The method is applied to evaluate the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of four thermal spray coatings of industrial importance.     

Thermal Spray Applications in Electronics and Sensors: Past,Present, and Future

Thermal spray has enjoyed unprecedented growth and has emerged as an innovative and multifaceted deposition technology. Thermal spray coatings are crucial to the enhanced utilization of various engineering systems. Industries, in recognition of thermal spray’s versatility and economics, have introduced it into manufacturing environments. The majority of modern thermal spray applications are “passive” protective coatings, and they rarely perform an electronic function. The ability to consolidate dissimilar material multilayers without substrate thermal loading has long been considered a virtue for thick-film electronics. However, the complexity of understanding/controlling materials functions especially those resulting from rapid solidification and layered assemblage has stymied expansion into electronics. That situation is changing: enhancements in process/material science are allowing reconsideration for novel electronic/sensor devices. This review critically examines past efforts in terms of materials functionality from a device perspective, along with ongoing/future concepts addressing the aforementioned deficiencies. The analysis points to intriguing future possibilities for thermal spray technology in the world of thick-film sensors.     

Aging and fracture of human cortical bone and tooth dentin

Mineralized tissues, such as bone and tooth dentin, serve as structural materials in the human body and, as such, have evolved to resist fracture. In assessing their quantitative fracture resistance or toughness, it is important to distinguish between intrinsic toughening mechanisms, which function ahead of the crack tip, such as plasticity in metals, and extrinsic mechanisms, which function primarily behind the tip, such as crack bridging in ceramics. Bone and dentin derive their resistance to fracture principally from extrinsic toughening mechanisms, which have their origins in the hierarchical microstructure of these mineralized tissues. Experimentally, quantification of these toughening mechanisms requires a crack-growth resistance approach, which can be achieved by measuring the crack-driving force (e.g., the stress intensity) as a function of crack extension (“R-curve approach”). Here this methodology is used to study the effect of aging on the fracture properties of human cortical bone and human dentin in order to discern the microstructural origins of toughness in these materials.     

“Smart” coatings: A technical note

The integration of sensors into thermally sprayed coatings can provide feedback about the functional status and operating history of the coatings as well as of the coated structures and surrounding environments. Sensors can be spray- formed directly on coatings using masking techniques. Production of coatings that contain embedded sensors opens up a new dimension for thermal spray technology: “smart” coatings. This paper describes the results of initial experiments to spray- form thermocouples, humidity sensors, strain gages, and sensor arrays.     

Determination of Interfacial Fracture Toughness of Thermal Spray Coatings by Indentation

Adhesion is an important and basic property for thermal spray coatings. The standard tensile test method “ISO 14916” is usually used to evaluate the adhesive strength of coatings. On the other hand, the indentation test method has some advantages to evaluate the interfacial fracture toughness as the adhesive strength, arising from the following reasons: the test procedure and the specimen preparation are easy in comparison with the typical testing method. Collaborative research has been conducted by “Committee on Standard Development” in the Japan Thermal Spray Society to establish a standard test method for evaluating interfacial fracture toughness of thermal spray coatings using a conventional Vickers indenter. This article reports the differences among collaborators in round-robin tests performed in this committee and discusses the validity of the test method and test conditions with respect to the test results and finite element analyses. Comparison among collaborators reveals that interfacial fracture toughness can be obtained with a small scattering from the indentation test under constraints found on the basis of the results.     

Peel strength of thermal sprayed coatings

For the thermal spray industry to progress, informative and reliable coating evaluation techniques are needed. Measurement of adhesion is an important function, and existing tests have severe limitations. The peel adhesion test (PAT) was adapted to thermal spray coatings (TSC) from the adhesives industry. In this test, a thin metal foil is coated by thermal spraying. The foil is then peeled off the coating at a constant speed. The force required for separation is monitored as a function of crack position. The force is than converted into a peel strength that is equivalent to the energy required for separation. The adhesion of a range of different TSCs was measured in the form of spray pattern profiles and uniform coatings. Results were compared with the ASTM standard for TSC adhesion measurement, the expected range of interface toughness, and the Vickers hardness of the coating. Comparisons indicate that the PAT is self consistent, and it produces results comparable to other toughness measurements. The peel test was used to determine interface toughness in the range of 10 to 60 J/m² for ceramic coatings, 150 to 250 J/m² for cermet coatings, and 160 to 300 J/m² for metal coatings.     

Influence of substrate properties on the impact resistance of WC cermet coatings

This research delivers a generic understanding of the design and integrated performance of the coating-substrate systems under impact loading, and comprehends the understanding of underpinning failure mechanisms. Repeated severe impacts to the coatings often result in poor performance by cracking and delamination from the coating-substrate interface. The durability of coatings thus depends on the choice of coating and substrate materials, coating deposition process, and service conditions. The design of thermal spray coatings thus requires an optimization of these parameters. This investigation provides insight into the role of coating and substrate properties on the impact resistance of coated materials, and maps the relationship between the impact resistance of WC cermet coatings on a variety of substrates. Results indicate that the delamination resistance of the coating during impact loading not only depends upon the hardness and roughness of the substrate material, but, more importantly, substrates with a higher work-hardening coefficient indicate a higher delamination resistance. The original version of this paper was published as part of the DVS Proceedings: “Thermal Spray Solutions: Advances in Technology and Application,” International Thermal Spray Conference, Osaka, Japan, 10–12 May 2004, CD-Rom, DVS-Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany.     

Influence of Plasma Intensity on Wear and Erosion Resistance of Conventional and Nanometric WC-Co Coatings Deposited by APS

The effects of plasma intensity and powder particle size on wear and erosion resistance have been evaluated for WC-12 wt.%Co coatings deposited by Air Plasma Spraying. Coatings were deposited from micrometric and nanostructured powders. SEM and XRD characterization showed the presence of WC, W₂C, W, and an amorphous Co-rich matrix. The performance of the different coatings was compared in sliding wear tests (ball-on-disk), under dry friction conditions. Wear debris and tracks were analyzed by SEM. The debris generated during the test was found to have a great influence on the sliding properties. Wear follows a “three-body abrasive mechanism” and is dominated by coating spallation because of sub-surface cracking. In order to evaluate erosion behavior, solid particle erosion tests were conducted. Eroded coatings were analyzed by SEM, and erosion mainly occurs by a “cracking and chipping mechanism.” The study shows that wear and erosion behavior is strongly affected by plasma arc intensity.     

Wear characteristics of plasma-sprayed nanostructured yttria partially stabilized zirconia coatings

Reconstituted nanostructured and conventional yttria partially stabilized zirconia coatings were deposited by atmospheric plasma spray. The tribologic properties of the coatings against 100C6 steel were evaluated with a ball-on-disc configuration under dry friction conditions at room temperature. Microstructure and the phase composition of the powders and the coatings were examined using a scanning electron microscope, optical microscope, and x-ray diffraction. Microhardness and the Young’s modulus of coatings were measured by indentation testing. Results showed that the wear resistance of the coatings produced using the nanostructured powder is improved compared with the coating produced using the conventional powder. The wear rates of nanostructured zirconia coatings are about four-fifths of those of conventional counterparts under a load of 5 N. The wear mechanism is also discussed. The original version of this paper was published as part of the DVS Proceedings: “Thermal Spray Solutions: Advances in Technology and Application,” International Thermal Spray Conference, Osaka, Japan, 10–12 May 2004, CD-Rom, DVS-Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany.     

陶瓷涂层断裂韧性的表征

由于陶瓷本身的脆性,陶瓷涂层的应用受到了极大的制约。断裂韧性是反映材料抵抗裂纹失稳扩展能力的力学性能指标,陶瓷涂层因为脆性和低维特点,对其断裂韧性的表征存在较大困难,目前主要有临界应力强度因子KⅠC、临界裂纹扩展能量释放率GⅠC和裂纹密度β三种表征方法。本文对上述方法进行了总结、分析。     

Arc Sprayed Steel: Microstructure in Severe Substrate Features

The effect of severe substrate topography on the microstructure of thermally sprayed coatings has been relatively neglected, but is critical in controlling the performance of thick electric arc sprayed steel shells for rapid tooling applications. This paper shows how the spray angle and the atomizing gas pressure control the distribution of porosity and oxide in steel sprayed in and around cylindrical holes of different diameter and depth. Droplet splashing and the secondary deposition of splash droplets caused systematic variations in microstructure. In particular, the origin of the phenomenon of “bridging,” the premature closure of features, has been revealed by microstructural analysis and explained in terms of the trajectories of droplets. The filling of features with higher-quality material can be aided by using a low atomizing gas pressure, reducing the oxygen partial pressure of the surrounding atmosphere and careful selection of the spray angle.     

Thermal barrier coating experience in gas turbine engines at Pratt & Whitney

Pratt & Whitney has accumulated more than three decades of experience with thermal barrier coatings (TBCs). These coatings were originally developed to reduce surface temperatures of combustors of JT8D gas turbine engines to increase the thermal fatigue life of the components. Continual improvements in de-sign, processing, and properties of TBCs have extended their applications to other turbine components, such as vanes, vane platforms, and blades, with attendant increases in performance and component du-rability. Plasma-spray-based generation I (Gen I) combustor TBCs with 7 wt % yttria partially stabilized zirconia deposited by air plasma spray (APS) on an APS NiCoCrAlY bond coat continues to perform ex-tremely well in all product line engines. Durability of this TBC has been further improved in Gen II TBCs for vanes by incorporating low-pressure chamber plasma-sprayed NiCoCrAl Y as a bond coat. The modi-fication has improved TBC durability by a factor of 2.5 and altered the failure mode from a “black fail-ure” within the bond coat to a “white failure” within the ceramic. Further improvements have been accomplished by instituting a more strain-tolerant ceramic top layer with electron beam/physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD) processing. This Gen III TBC has demonstrated exceptional performance on rotating airfoils in high-thrust-rated engines, improving blade durability by three times through elimination of blade creep, fracture, and rumpling of metallic coatings used for oxi-dation protection of the airfoil surfaces. A TBC durability model for plasma-sprayed as well as EB-PVD systems is proposed that involves the accumulation of compressive stresses during cyclic thermal expo-sure. The model attempts to correlate failure of the various TBCs with elements of their structure and its degradation with thermocyclic exposure.     

Characterization of copper layers produced by cold gas-dynamic spraying

The cold gas-dynamic spray method produces coatings or deposits by introducing solid feedstock particles into a supersonic gas stream developed through the use of a converging-diverging (de Laval) nozzle. The particles thus accelerated impact on a substrate surface and develop into a dense deposit through a process believed to be similar to cold compaction. The work reported here explores the internal nature and physical characteristics of copper deposits produced by the cold gas-dynamic spray method using two vastly different starting powders: in one case, a “spongy” copper obtained by a direct-reduction process, and in the second, a denser, more spheroidal particulate produced by gas atomization. Optical and electron microscopies (scanning electron microscopy [SEM] and transmission electron microscopy [TEM]) were used to observe details of microstructure in the feedstock particles and deposits. Young’s modulus and residual stress measurements for the deposits were obtained through mechanical means, and measurements of hardness and electrical conductivity are reported. The internal structure of the cold-spray deposit was influenced by the surface purity of the feedstock material.