Traits, consistency, and self-schemata: What do our methods measure?

Psychologists have responded to the inadequacies that W. Mischel (1968) noted in the trait approach to personality by exploring 2 other facets of personality, cross-situational consistency and self-schemata. It is argued that these newer approaches have yet to be clearly distinguished conceptually or empirically from the traditional model that they were designed to supplement or replace. In the present 2 studies, 362 undergraduates rated the extent to which 10 traits applied to them (overall level), their consistency on these traits (cross-situational consistency), and the importance of these traits to their view of themselves (self-schema). Correlational analyses showed that the measures of consistency and self-schema lacked discriminant validity from the measures of overall level. Specifically, their correlations with level were as high as their internal consistencies. It is concluded that the measurement models for cross-situational consistency and for self-schemata do not adequately reflect their theoretical counterparts. This failure undercuts the interpretations of recent research by H. Markus (see record 1977-27585-001), Markus et al (see record 1982-23588-001), and S. Bem (see record 1981-25685-001). (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

To predict some of the people some of the time: A reexamination of the moderator variable approach in personality theory.

Bem and Allen (1974) proposed but did not test the notion that trait relevance moderates cross-situational behavior consistency, but did obtain support, albeit weaker than is generally recognized, for a moderator effect of self-reported consistency. Kenrick and Stringfield (1980) showed that self-reported observability of behavior may also moderate self–peer consistency, but replication attempts were not entirely successful. Our investigation produced significant moderator effects on self–peer correlations for trait relevance, consistency, and observability when each of these variables was analyzed alone; we also obtained significant moderator effects for trait relevance and self-reported consistency (but not for observability) when all the variables were included in the same regression analysis. There was significant support for the prediction that the moderators combine additively: Self–peer correlations increased linearly as a function of the number of contributing moderator effects. There was even stronger support for the prediction that the moderators combined in an all-or-nothing manner: Self–peer correlations were high when the level of all three moderators was high, and low when the level of one or more of the three moderators was low. Our future research recommendation? Identify the optimal moderators and the manner in which they can be combined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix.

"This paper advocates a validational process utilizing a matrix of intercorrelations among tests representing at least two traits, each measured by at least two methods. Measures of the same trait should correlate higher with each other than they do with measures of different traits involving separate methods. Ideally, these validity values should also be higher than the correlations among different traits measure by the same method." Examples from the literature are described as well as problems in the application of the technique. 36 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity.

This review of 122 research reports (184 independent samples, 14,900 subjects) found average r = .274 for prediction of behavioral, judgment, and physiological measures by Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures. Parallel explicit (i.e., self-report) measures, available in 156 of these samples (13,068 subjects), also predicted effectively (average r = .361), but with much greater variability of effect size. Predictive validity of self-report was impaired for socially sensitive topics, for which impression management may distort self-report responses. For 32 samples with criterion measures involving Black–White interracial behavior, predictive validity of IAT measures significantly exceeded that of self-report measures. Both IAT and self-report measures displayed incremental validity, with each measure predicting criterion variance beyond that predicted by the other. The more highly IAT and self-report measures were intercorrelated, the greater was the predictive validity of each. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality correlates of self-report, role-playing, and in vivo measures of assertiveness.

Assessed the construct equivalence of the 3 types of assertiveness measures: self-report, role playing, and in vivo. Construct equivalence was examined by determining the relationships between these measures and a standardized personality inventory. 76 undergraduates completed 2 self-report inventories of assertiveness (the Rathus Assertiveness Scale and the College Self-Expression Scale), participated in a behavior role-playing task and an in vivo measure of assertiveness, and completed a comprehensive personality inventory [the Personality Research Form, Form E, or (PRF-E)]. 11 of 22 PRF-E scales had at least 1 significant correlation with the assertiveness measures. Also, some composites of the PRF-E scales were related to the assertiveness measures. The pattern of correlations with the PRF-E, for the most part, was consistent with theoretical predictions for the self-report and role-playing measures. However, each of the methods for measuring assertiveness did appear to assess some unique aspects of the assertiveness construct. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing alexithymia and related emotional ability constructs using multiple methods: Interrelationships among measures.

This study examined relationships among various measures of emotional ability reflecting different methods of assessment: self-report, clinical interview, collateral report, and emotion-relevant performance. On 140 young adults, the authors assessed self-reported alexithymia, emotional approach coping, and trait metamood skills; observer-reported alexithymia; interviewer-rated alexithymia; emotional awareness in response to vignettes; and emotional intelligence test performance. There were moderate magnitude correlations among the self-report measures, but correlations among other measures were relatively low. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a 3-factor model in which explicit self, implicit self, and explicit other measures were differentiated. These emotional ability measures do not form a unitary construct but differ as a function of the person providing the information and whether the measure is explicit or implicit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of parenthood on various aspects of masculinity and femininity: A short-term longitudinal study.

Assessed 3 aspects of sex typing for 30 primiparous couples from the 3rd trimester of the wives' pregnancies to 6 mo postpartum. Based on laboratory observations and self-rating scales (including the Bem Satisfaction Scale and Bem Sex-Role Inventory), measures of femininity and masculinity were obtained for role behaviors, self-rated personality traits, and identity. Despite stability of rank order for all measures, there were changes in the magnitude of sex typing from expectancy to parenthood. Men and women increased in feminine role behavior, feminine identity, and instrumental personality traits, and women decreased in masculine role behavior. The masculine and feminine domains each displayed a modest degree of cohesiveness across the different measures, but the patterns of association were stage-of-life specific and sex specific. Most striking was the dissociation of the feminine role behavior measure from other sex-typing components for mothers of infants. The relationship between masculinity and femininity were measure specific. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Meta-analysis of experiments with matched groups or repeated measures designs.

Tests for experiments with matched groups or repeated measures designs use error terms that involve the correlation between the measures as well as the variance of the data. The larger the correlation between the measures, the smaller the error and the larger the test statistic. If an effect size is computed from the test statistic without taking the correlation between the measures into account, effect size will be overestimated. Procedures for computing effect size appropriately from matched groups or repeated measures designs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group sensitivity training: Update, meta-analysis, and recommendations.

This investigation was a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of group sensitivity training. Analysis of 63 studies revealed a moderate size, heterogeneous effect (weighted mean d?=?0.62) on all outcome measures. Categorical model testing indicated that group sensitivity training had significantly larger effects on behavioral measures than on self-report measures (mean ds?=?1.03 and 0.44, respectively). Moreover, effect sizes for behavioral measures were moderated by the size of treatment groups, the number of sessions, and the precision of measurement recording. That is, interventions involving larger groups and meeting for more sessions had larger effect sizes, as did studies involving more discrete outcome measures. As recommended elsewhere, future studies need to explore group processes and mechanisms of change in group sensitivity training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effective teacher behavior as a function of learner ability.

Examined relations between the size of a process–product correlation and teacher behavior, student ability, and subject area taught, using 15 elementary reading classes and 6 elementary arithmetic classes. Frequency measures were obtained from the observation records on 22 behaviors identified by classroom teachers as indicators of teaching competence. Expected achievement gains of high- and low-ability students were estimated from their standardized achievement test scores. Expected gains of both types of students in each subject area were correlated with each of the 22 indicators of competence to identify patterns of effective teacher behavior. Results show that 20 of the 88 correlations were significant. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that a different pattern of teacher behavior was maximally effective in each context. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative affectivity in children: A multitrait-multimethod investigation.

The present study investigated the use of the broad-band construct, negative affectivity, with children's self-report measures of depression, anxiety, and anger. A multitrait-multimethod analysis was conducted to intercorrelate scores from self-report measures with scale and subscale scores of the Child Behavior Checklist–Teacher Report Form ({cbcl-trf}). The resulting matrix revealed significant correlations among the self-report measures of anxiety and depression and revealed that these measures correlated significantly with the Internalizing scale scores of the {cbcl-trf}. However, correlations between the individual self-report measures and their corresponding {cbcl-trf} scale scores were not significant. Regression analyses indicated that both depression and anxiety self-report measures were predictors of the {cbcl-trf} Internalizing scale, but no self-report measures were predictive of the {cbcl-trf} Externalizing scale. Findings suggest that the child self-report measures of anxiety and depression used in this study can best be conceptualized as measures of a broad-band construct rather than of the narrow-band dimensions of anxiety and depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competition in the NHS internal market: an overview of its effects on hospital prices and costs

Two-year stability coefficients were computed for several measures of borderline personality disorder within a nonclinical sample (n = 65) that included individuals with significant borderline features. Overall, the stability coefficients were modest (r ranging from .28 to .62; intraclass correlations ranging from .26 to .62). Stability values for each of the self-report measures under study were higher than those for the interview-based measure of BPD features, and, in some cases, these values varied as a function of the prototypicality of the subsamples examined. Analyses conducted to identify moderator effects provided no evidence that the stability of BPD scores was moderated by change in personal distress level; however, changes in BPD self-report scores were related to changes in level of negative affectivity.     

Criterion validity of objective and projective dependency tests: A meta-analytic assessment of behavioral prediction.

A meta-analysis of published studies in which scores on objective (i.e., self-report) or projective measures of interpersonal dependency were used to predict some aspect of dependency-related behavior revealed that validity coefficients for projective tests (number of comparisons=32) were generally larger than validity coefficients for objective tests (number of comparisons=54). The relationships of setting in which data were collected, source of behavioral ratings, and participant classification method on observed test score–behavior correlations were also assessed. Implications of these findings for use of objective and projective dependency measures in clinical, laboratory, and field settings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Seeing the forest from the trees: When predicting the behavior or status of groups, correlate means.

When measures of individual differences are used to predict group performance, the reporting of correlations computed on samples of individuals invites misinterpretation and dismissal of the data. In contrast, if regression equations, in which the correlations required are computed on bivariate means, as are the distribution statistics, it is difficult to underappreciate or lightly dismiss the utility of psychological predictors. Given sufficient sample size and linearity of regression, this technique produces cross-validated regression equations that forecast criterion means with almost perfect accuracy. This level of accuracy is provided by correlations approaching unity between bivariate samples of predictor and criterion means, and this holds true regardless of the magnitude of the "simple" correlation (e.g., rxy ?=?.20, or rxy ?=?.80). We illustrate this technique empirically using a measure of general intelligence as the predictor and other measures of individual differences and socioeconomic status as criteria. In addition to theoretical applications pertaining to group trends, this methodology also has implications for applied problems aimed at developing policy in numerous fields. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

To predict some of the people some of the time: In search of moderators.

This study tested the prediction that 3 variables—self-reported trait relevance, consistency, and observability—would moderate correlations between self-ratings and peer ratings. These predictions received considerable support when the 3 moderators were measured by ranking procedures (i.e., rank ordering traits in terms of their standing on each moderator) and very litle support when the 3 moderators were measured by rating scales (i.e., rating each trait in terms of its standing on each moderator). The advantage of the ranking measure may indicate an advantage for moderators that distinguish among traits across or within individuals (intertrait and intraindividual moderators) as opposed to moderators that distinguish among individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Androgyny versus gender schema: A comment on Bem's gender schema theory.

S. L. Bem (see PA, Vol 66:00000) proposes that the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) measures individual differences in a unidimensional construct in addition to 2 independent dimensions, global self-concepts of masculinity and femininity. Evidence suggests that the BSRI measures primarily self-images of instrumental and expressive personality traits and that these trait clusters show little or no relationship to global self-images of masculinity and femininity or to unidimensional constructs such as the tendency to utilize gender schemata. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The measurement of anxiety in an analogue social situation.

Established a measurement procedure for social anxiety by exposing 34 male undergraduates (17 socially anxious and 17 socially nonanxious) to 3 increasingly stressful phases of a social interaction situation. Self-report and behavioral measures indicated that the session was indeed increasingly anxiety provoking for the total group. Posttest self-report measures discriminated high- and low-social-anxiety groups (p     

Measures of functional status in community-dwelling elders

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate two performance-based measures of functional status and assess their correlation with self-report measures. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS: Of the 363 community-dwelling elders enrolled in a trial of comprehensive geriatric assessment who participated, all had at least one of four target conditions (urinary incontinence, depression, impaired functional status, or history of falling). MEASUREMENTS: Two performance-based measures, National Institute on Aging (NIA) Battery, and Physical Performance Test (PPT), and three self-report functional status measures, basic and intermediate activities of daily living and the Short-Form-36 (SF-36) physical functioning subscale, were used. Measures of restricted activity days, patient satisfaction and perceived efficacy were also used. MAIN RESULTS: All measures were internally consistent. There was a high correlation between the NIA and PPT (kappa = 0.71), while correlations between the performance-based and self-report measures ranged from 0.37 to 0.50. When patients with values above the median on the two performance-based measures were compared with those below, there were significant differences (p 相似文献