Comparing victim attributions and outcomes for workplace aggression and sexual harassment.

In 2 studies, we investigated victim attributions (Study 1) and outcomes (Study 2) for workplace aggression and sexual harassment. Drawing on social categorization theory, we argue that victims of workplace aggression and sexual harassment may make different attributions about their mistreatment. In Study 1, we investigated victim attributions in an experimental study. We hypothesized that victims of sexual harassment are more likely than victims of workplace aggression to depersonalize their mistreatment and attribute blame to the perpetrator or the perpetrator's attitudes toward their gender. In contrast, victims of workplace aggression are more likely than victims of sexual harassment to personalize the mistreatment and make internal attributions. Results supported our hypotheses. On the basis of differential attributions for these 2 types of mistreatment, we argue that victims of workplace aggression may experience stronger adverse outcomes than victims of sexual harassment. In Study 2, we compared meta-analytically the attitudinal, behavioral, and health outcomes of workplace aggression and sexual harassment. Negative outcomes of workplace aggression were stronger in magnitude than those of sexual harassment for 6 of the 8 outcome variables. Implications and future directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Child sexual abuse: victim age, victim gender, and observer gender as factors contributing to attributions of responsibility

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of victim gender, and observer gender on the tendency to attribute responsibility for extrafamilial child sexual abuse to the victim and the nonoffending parents. METHOD: A 2 (Victim Age) x 2 (Victim Gender) x 2 (Observer Gender) between-subjects design was employed. Undergraduate students (N = 145) read a vignette describing a sexually abusive interaction between an adult male neighbor and a child. In this vignette, the child's gender and age (6 years old, 13 years old) varied. After reading the vignette, participants used a 5-point scale to indicate the degree to which they believed the victim and the parents (a) were responsible for, (b) were to blame for, (c) caused, and (d) could have prevented the abuse. RESULTS: Greater responsibility was assigned to older than younger victims. Both parents were ascribed similar levels of responsibility, and were ascribed greater responsibility when the child victim was younger than older. Male observers attributed greater responsibility and causality to the victim and the parents than did female observers. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that responsibility attributions directed toward the victim and the nonoffending parents may be a function of the victim's age. In addition, the findings support previous research suggesting that male observers may tend to hold victims more responsible for their abuse than female observers. Implications for treatment and research are discussed.     

Self-blame and depressive symptoms.

Investigated whether internal attributions for bad events are always associated with depression. The depressive symptoms of 86 female undergraduates correlated with blame directed at their own characters. In contrast, blame directed at their own behaviors correlated with lack of depressive symptoms. Behaviorally attributed bad events were seen as more controllable and their causes less stable and less global than were characterologically attributed bad events and their causes. Characterological blame increased with more negative life events during the last year, implying that individuals who blame their character may arrive at this attributional style by a covariation analysis. Finally, characterological blame did not precede the onset of depressive symptoms 6 or 12 wks later. As a result, characterological blame may be a strong concomitant of depression but not a cause. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Terror management and attributions of blame to innocent victims: Reconciling compassionate and defensive responses.

In this article, 4 studies test the hypothesis that reminders of personal death bias the normative attribution process and increase the motivation to blame severely injured, innocent victims. In Studies 1 and 2, primes of death led to greater attributions of blame to severely injured victims but did not significantly influence attributions of blame to either mildly injured victims or negatively portrayed others. In Study 3, primes of death led to greater attributions of blame to victims of circumstance but did not influence attributions of blame to victims who were explicitly responsible for their condition. In Study 4, innocent victims who were severely injured elicited more death-related cognitions than did victims who were responsible for their condition or who were only mildly injured. These findings indicate that the predictions of normative models of attribution may be moderated, and even overturned, when observers are reminded of their personal death such that defensive needs override rational inferential processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of recovery from trauma: The use of intraindividual analysis.

Patterns of recovery from sexual and nonsexual assault were examined. Two studies containing data from female victims of these assaults were analyzed. In Study 1, victims (N?=?101) underwent 12 weekly assessments with measures of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and state anxiety. In Study 2, victims (N?=?108) underwent monthly assessments on the same measures. The authors examined the effects of type of trauma and time of peak reaction on long-term recovery using intraindividual analysis of change. In both studies, initial and peak reactions of rape victims were more severe than were those of nonsexual assault victims on all measures of psychopathology. Victims with delayed peak reaction exhibited more severe pathology at the final assessment than did victims with early peak reaction. Results of Study 2 indicated a slower recovery rate from sexual than nonsexual assault; in Study 1 a similar pattern of recovery emerged. The advantages of an individual-focused, longitudinal approach to recovery from a trauma are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measurement of empathy toward rape victims and rapists.

Developed the Rape Empathy Scale (RES), which measures empathy toward the rape victim and the rapist in a heterosexual rape situation. Reliability was assessed with 255 male and 384 female undergraduates and 72 male and 98 female jurors; cross-validation was analyzed with 159 male and 147 female undergraduates and 82 male and 104 female jurors. Significant differences between male and female RES scores were found, along with differences between scores of women who had and had not experienced a rape situation. RES scores were predictive of both students and jurors' ratings of defendant guilt and their recommended sentences for the defendant and their attributions of responsibility for the crime. Ss' RES scores were predictive of their social perceptions of the rape victim and defendant, and male jurors' RES scores were negatively correlated with their reported desire to rape a woman. Results are discussed in relation to the low conviction rate for sexual assault cases and the importance of juror selection as a vehicle for increasing the number of just convictions in rape cases. (72 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactions to rape victims: Effects of rape circumstances, victim's emotional response, and sex of helper.

Case reports purported to have come from the records of a sexual abuse care center were presented to 98 female and 107 male undergraduates who then judged the impact of the rape experience on the victims' psychological adjustment and indicated their likely counseling goals for her. Three types of rape circumstances (home blitz, outside blitz, acquaintance) were varied with 3 types of postrape manifest emotional reactions (upset–anger, upset–guilt, calm) and S sex. Upset victims were seen as having more serious and more long-lasting problems, were more likely to be encouraged to try and forget the incident, and were less likely to be encouraged to accept personal responsibility for the assault than were calm victims. Ss, especially men, evaluated victims' degree of emotional upset as a function of rape circumstances, with blitz-type assaults perceived as most upsetting. Consistent sex differences indicated that women were more sympathetic with and more willing to talk with rape victims than were men. Results are discussed in terms of popular assumptions about rape victims and sex differences in identification with and empathy for female rape victims. Implications for training of professional and paraprofessional counselors are noted. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, causal attributions, and affects in achievement-related contexts.

114 male and 94 female undergraduates completed the Multidimensional-Multiattributional Causality Scales, the Profile of Mood States, and a scale of commonly experienced feelings. On the basis of the theory outlined by B. Weiner et al (see record 1980-32563-001), it was hypothesized that particular affect clusters (pride, gratitude, guilt, and anger) would characterize Ss differing with respect to attributional style. Pride and its cognates were more common affective responses among Ss who attributed achievement successes to internal causes, whereas anger and surprise were more common among Ss who attributed achievement failures to external causes. Pride was more strongly related to success attributions for females than for males. Results provide moderate support for the linkage between causal attributions and affects. (French abstract) (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus: effects of age and sex

Young children's attributions of gender-typed activities to figures/models differing in height and/or sex were examined over three experiments. The influence of gender constancy understanding on children's gender-typed attributions was also examined. In Experiment 1, young children attributed significantly more masculine activities to male than female figures and significantly more feminine activities to female than male figures. Experiment 2 confirmed the results demonstrated in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, additional line-drawn stimuli and figure comparisons were incorporated; participants attributed significantly more masculine activities to taller than shorter male figures and taller than shorter female figures. In addition, children attributed significantly more feminine activities to taller than shorter female figures. In Experiment 3, participants viewed pictures of taller and shorter male and female models. Results confirmed those of Experiment 1, as well as most of those of Experiment 2. No consistent patterns of children's gender-typed attributions as a function of gender constancy understanding emerged in the three experiments. Results are discussed as they apply to unexplored tenets from Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental model, as well as those of gender schema models, of early gender role development.     

Sexual responsiveness of college students to rape depictions: Inhibitory and disinhibitory effects.

Conducted 2 experiments with a total of 436 undergraduates to identify the specific dimensions in portrayals of sexual violence that inhibit or disinhibit the sexual responsiveness of male and female college students. Exp I replicated earlier findings that normals are less sexually aroused by portrayals of sexual assault than by depictions of mutually consenting sex. In Exp II, it was shown that portraying the rape victim as experiencing an involuntary orgasm disinhibited Ss' sexual responsiveness and resulted in levels of arousal comparable to those elicited by depictions of mutually consenting sex. Surprisingly, however, it was found that although female Ss were most aroused when the rape victim was portrayed as experiencing an orgasm and no pain, males were most aroused when the victim experienced an orgasm and pain. The relevance of these data to pornography and to the common belief among rapists that their victims derive pleasure from being assaulted is discussed. Misattribution, identification, and power explanations of the findings are also discussed. Finally, it is suggested that arousing stimuli that fuse sexuality and violence may have antisocial effects. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research.

Meta-analyses of studies yielding sex-specific risk of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicated that female participants were more likely than male participants to meet criteria for PTSD, although they were less likely to experience PTEs. Female participants were more likely than male participants to experience sexual assault and child sexual abuse, but less likely to experience accidents, nonsexual assaults, witnessing death or injury, disaster or fire, and combat or war. Among victims of specific PTEs (excluding sexual assault or abuse), female participants exhibited greater PTSD. Thus, sex differences in risk of exposure to particular types of PTE can only partially account for the differential PTSD risk in male and female participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quantitative analysis and isolation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a food matrix using flow cytometry and cell sorting

Until recently, very little attention has been paid to male victims of sexual abuse in childhood and male victims of rape and sexual assault in adulthood. Increasingly, researchers and clinicians are turning their attention to the particular problems encountered by male victims of abuse and sexual assault. Recent changes in British Law have acknowledged the existence of rape of male victims and have highlighted the need to identify the number of male victims of sexual assault and plan appropriate clinical services. A review of the literature reveals very little British empirical research on the psychological impact of rape upon male victims, although the studies that have been carried out provide clear evidence of a wide range of psychological consequences, both in the immediate period following the assault and in the long-term. Differences and similarities with female victims of rape are discussed. The particular problems encountered by male victims mean that they are even less likely than female victims to report an assault; when they do seek help the most pervasive themes that emerge from the literature concern their problems in reconciling their masculine identity with their experience of being a sexual victim. Issues concerning treatment of male victims are also discussed.     

Physical attractiveness and attributions for disability.

80 undergraduates viewed stimulus slides of an unattractive or attractive female or an unattractive or attractive male who had allegedly become paraplegic as a result of an automobile accident. Ss then completed a questionnaire assessing the potential causes of the accident, prognosis for the victim's disability, and the victim's level of responsibility for the accident. Results demonstrate that the unattractive victims were perceived as having more permanent disabilities and needing longer rehabilitation periods than the attractive victims. Ss made different attributions of the injury and assigned more personal responsibility to the physically attractive victims. Findings are discussed within the context of the "just world" hypothesis proposed by M. Lerner et al (1976). (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributions for real and hypothetical events: Their relation to self-esteem and depression.

Examined the association between attributional style, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and general distress to test hypotheses derived from a learned helplessness model and B. Weiner's (see record 1979-28688-001) attributional model of motivation. 178 male and female undergraduates completed the Beck Depression Inventory, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and an attributional style questionnaire and were asked to make causal attributional ratings about 12 hypothetical events. 151 Ss also were asked to make diary ratings on 14 real events. Attributional ratings were internally consistent across events, but attributions about positive outcomes were either uncorrelated or positively correlated with attributions about negative outcomes, failing to support learned helplessness predictions that a single process underlies attributions about positive and negative events. As predicted, internal attributions for positive outcomes were primarily associated with high self-esteem. Only internal stable attributions for negative outcomes were related to depressive symptoms, consistent with Weiner's model. The pattern of correlation between attributions and general distress was essentially identical to that obtained with depressive symptoms. Attributions for real events were similar in their effects to ratings of hypothetical events. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and ethnic differences in the use of power.

Hypothesized that women and Chicanos would make less internal and more external attributions for their own successful performance than would Anglo males. 40 Chicano male, 40 Chicano female, 40 Anglo male, and 40 Anglo female undergraduates participated as managers in an industrial simulation study. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions: designated powers vs unspecified powers, and supervision of male or female workers. Following the managerial task, Ss completed a questionnaire assessing their own performance and that of their workers. All Anglos devalued their workers as a function of controlling power and attributed workers' performance to external factors. All Ss tended to use their power to persuade workers. Males attempted to influence workers to a greater degree than did females. The predicted sex differences in terms of attribution were evident only among Anglos. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender disparities in the attribution of cardiac-related symptoms: Contribution of common sense models of illness.

The role of common sense models of heart disease in the attribution of cardiac-related symptoms was examined in a sample of healthy young adults (N?=?224). Participants were less likely to attribute symptoms to possible cardiac causes for female victims reporting stressful life events (M?=?5.14) than for female victims without such stressors (M?=?6.82) or for male victims with (M?=?6.23) or without (M?=?6.48) concurrent stressors. Cardiac attributions remained lowest for female/high-stress victims in additional samples of undergraduates (N?=?194), community-residing adults (N?=?48), and physicians (N?=?45), although this outcome sometimes appeared to reflect additive, rather than interactive, effects. Two final experiments with undergraduate samples (Ns?=?48 and 60, respectively) indicated that stereotypes associating heart disease with male gender may account for gender disparities in the attribution of cardiac-related symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual abuse histories of adolescent male sex offenders: Differences on the basis of the age and gender of their victims.

Childhood sexual abuse has often been implicated in the etiology of adolescent sex offending behavior. Victimization rates in the literature vary according to whether data are collected prior (22%) or subsequent (52%) to treatment. Previous research suggests that the incidence of sexual abuse varies as a function of victim age and gender. Sexual abuse histories were collected from 87 adolescent male sex offenders following an average of 13 months of clinical interactions. Offenders were categorized according to the age and gender of their victims; groups were comparable in age and socioeconomic status. It was found that 75% of adolescent offenders who ever assaulted 1 male child reported sexual abuse in comparison to only 25% of those who assaulted female children, peers, or adults. Results suggest that sexual victimization may be an important explanatory variable for adolescent sexual assaults against male children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring the basis of sex differences in third-party allocations.

In Study 1, 67 female and 64 male undergraduates allocated rewards to workers under instructions to be fair, to increase productivity, and to improve worker relationships. Although fair norms were similar for both sexes, female Ss were significantly more equal under pressure to improve worker relationships, and male Ss were more equitable under pressure to increase productivity. In Study 2, 42 female and 44 male undergraduates were asked to explain differences in workers' productivity rates. On open-ended and scaled measures of attribution, females were significantly more likely to attribute a lower productivity rate to internal constraints and to quality workmanship, and males were significantly more likely to attribute a lower productivity rate to lower motivation. It is argued that sex differences in attributions of worker performance are a basis for observed sex differences in allocation behavior. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender Disparities in Common Sense Models of Illness Among Myocardial Infarction Victims.

Symptom attributions were contrasted between male and female myocardial infarction victims (N = 157) who were comparable on age, cardiac risk status, medical history, symptom presentation, and other variables. Women were less likely than men to attribute their prehospital symptoms to cardiac causes. In the context of hearing symptom attributions or advice from support persons, women were less likely than men to report receiving a cardiac attribution or advice to seek medical attention. Results have implications for how victim gender influences the lay interpretation of cardiac symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race and sex effects on attitudinal perceptions of acquaintance rape.

In an examination of sex and race effects on attitudes about sexual assault, 336 Latino and Caucasian undergraduates reacted to a written acquaintance rape vignette that manipulated victim and perpetrator race. Reactions were assessed by the Rape Empathy Scale, the Attitudes Toward Rape Victim Scale (ARVS), and the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMAS). Results indicated that women reported higher perceptions of empathy, ascribed more credibility toward the tape victim, and were less accepting of rape myths compared with their male counterparts. Interactions involving sex and race were obtained for the ARVS and RMAS ratings, indicating that, compared with Latinas, Caucasian women reported stronger positive attitudes toward rape victims generally and more accurate perceptions of rape when the victim was portrayed as Caucasian. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)