Fermentation and nutrient availability

Malnutrition and deficiency of micronutrients are highly prevalent and even increasing in parts of several developing countries. Factors of immediate and direct influence to these nutritional disorders are inadequate food consumption and diseases, which usually interact in a mutually reinforcing manner. In addition, the bioavailability of many nutrients in vegetable diets is usually low, and this will significantly contribute to the nutritional inadequacy. To improve the nutrient intake, food preparation technologies have been advocated that will effectively increase the nutrient availability of vegetable diets. These technologies must, however, be simple, easily understood and culturally acceptable, and the food products must be affordable, in terms of economy and labour input. Several such traditional food technologies exist at household level in many developing countries, and include soaking, germination and fermentation. This paper will discuss the merits of the fermentation technique in order to improve the nutritional value of vegetable foods.     

Assessment of fermentation as a household technology for improving food safety: a joint FAO/WHO workshop

Food safety and nutritional aspects of lactic acid fermentation processes for the purpose of complementary food preparation at household scale in tropical countries were assessed during an FAO/WHO workshop held in Pretoria, South Africa in December 1995.

Lactic acid fermentation was evaluated in particular, taking into consideration that microbial fermentation is only a part of the food preparation processes involving other operations such as soaking, cooking and the use of germinated cereals. The latter are of special interest as they enable the preparation of semiliquid porridges of high-nutrient density.

The present state of knowledge concerning the antimicrobial effects imparted by the acidity in lactic-fermented foods was reviewed, as well as the nutritional benefits of fermentation and use of germinated cereals. Areas requiring further research were identified and prioritized.

It was concluded that high priority should be given to research on: the effect of lactic acid fermentation on viruses, parasites, some bacteria and mycotoxins; risk assessment using the HACCP approach, health education of food handlers and consumer perception of fermented foods; characterization and optimization of fermentation processes and development of appropriate starters; and some physiological and nutritional effects of consumption of fermented foods.     

Isothermal calorimetry for biological applications in food science and technology

All physical, chemical and biological processes produce heat and isothermal calorimetry is a general measurement technique to study all kinds of processes by the heat they produce. This paper gives several examples of studies of biological processes in the food area using isothermal calorimetry. It is for example shown how different unit operations influence respiration of vegetable tissue, how the kinetics of a fermentation process can be studied, and how spoilage processes can be followed for shelf-life determinations.     

Common African cooking processes do not affect the aflatoxin binding efficacy of refined calcium montmorillonite clay

Aflatoxins are common contaminants of staple crops, such as corn and groundnuts, and a significant cause of concern for food safety and public health in developing countries. Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) has been implicated in the etiology of acute and chronic disease in humans and animals, including growth stunting, liver cancer and death. Cost effective and culturally acceptable intervention strategies for the reduction of dietary AFB₁ exposure are of critical need in populations at high risk for aflatoxicosis. Fermented gruels consisting of cornmeal are a common source for such exposure and are consumed by both children and adults in many countries with a history of frequent, high-level aflatoxin exposure. One proposed method to reduce aflatoxins in the diet is to include a selective enterosorbent, Uniform Particle Size NovaSil (UPSN), as a food additive in contaminated foods. For UPSN to be effective in this capacity, it must be stable in complex, acidic mixtures that are often exposed to heat during the process of fermented gruel preparation. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to test the ability of UPSN to sorb aflatoxin while common cooking conditions were applied. The influence of fermentation, heat treatment, acidity, and processing time were investigated with and without UPSN. Analyses were performed using the field-practical Vicam assay with HPLC verification of trends. Our findings demonstrated that UPSN significantly reduced aflatoxin levels (47–100%) in cornmeal, regardless of processing conditions. Upon comparison of each element tested, time appeared to be the primary factor influencing UPSN efficacy. The greatest decreases in AFB₁ were reported in samples allowed to incubate (with or without fermentation) for 72 h. This data suggests that addition of UPSN to staple corn ingredients likely to contain aflatoxins would be a sustainable approach to reduce exposure.     

Consumers' evaluation of volition,control, anticipated regret,and perceived food health risk. Evidence from a field experiment in a traditional vegetable market in Kenya

Food markets in developing countries encompass a wide spectrum of food health risk exposures for consumers, but little is known about how consumers make judgments and decisions in relation to these risks. This study examined the relationship between perceived food health risk, anticipated regret from adverse health outcomes, command over exposure (volition), and command over outcome (control). A field experiment was conducted with consumers of kale (Brassica oleracea) at a traditional peri-urban market in Nairobi, Kenya. The intervention introduced a sales point developed to meet high food safety standards with produce being specifically sourced and controlled for safe production, transport, and handling practices. The treatment group (n = 152) received information about actions taken through the intervention to minimize risks and participants used their own money to bid to upgrade from kale sold from non-intervention sales stands. Participants in the control group (n = 100) were observed after buying kale from non-intervention sales points within the same market. The results showed that consequentialist and emotion-based risk measures were related, as were volition and control for both groups, but the levels were different. Moreover, in the treatment group perceived risk was related to volition and anticipated regret, but control was only related to perceived risk. These findings have implications for food risk communication and actions to improve local conditions under which food is sold.     

Influence of microbiological and chemical quality of traditional starter made from cassava on “attiéké” produced from four cassava varieties

Attiéké is a steamed fermented cassava semolina and food now included in many African countries habits. Non-control of production factors is an important constraint causing manufacturing defaults. Moreover, toxic varieties are used in fermented foods.The aim of this study was to characterize and optimize microbiological, physicochemical and biochemical qualities of attiéké Ebrié. The analyses were performed on traditional inoculum and 4 cassava varieties.The lactic fermentation of cassava dough had positive impact on microbiological and chemical qualities of prepared attiéké that showed slight acidity (pH = 4.6), high starch (80–90 g/l00 g) and low cyanide contents (2.79–5.00 mg/kg). Therefore, sweet varieties are suitable for preparing attiéké.     

Implementation of HACCP in food businesses: the way ahead

Food-borne diseases constitute an important public health problem in both developed and developing countries. Although their health and economic aspects are often obscured by insufficiency of data, available evidence on incidence and associated costs of medical care indicates that they are a major cause of morbidity, and a drain on resources. A joint WHO/FAO expert committee on food safety asserts that illness due to contaminated food is probably the most widespread health problem in the contemporary world, and an important cause of reduced economic productivity. Given the inadequacies of traditional approaches to food safety control, viz. inspection and end-product testing, there is a need to apply such other strategy of proven effectiveness as the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) system which has been described as the most viable means for the prevention of food-borne diseases yet devised. While there is an extensive literature suggesting the effectiveness of HACCP in preventing food-borne diseases, food operators have yet to embrace it with the anticipated enthusiasm. This paper examines factors that are likely to hinder wider acceptance and practical implementation of HACCP in food operations and discusses measures to overcome them. It is concluded that HACCP training and education of food operators and food regulatory officials is a conditio sine qua non for the realization of the fullest benefits of the strategy.     

International Natural Gas: Mitigating Expropriation Risk of Natural Gas Projects

The international energy companies often find the most attractive oil and gas prospects to be located in countries where the risk of expropriation, whether full or partial, looms on the horizon. Although the epicenter of recent expropriations has been Latin America, expropriation risk is certainly not limited to that region. As new resources are discovered in new parts of the globe, many nations are for the first time experiencing major oil and gas operations within their borders. Given the right political and social atmosphere and the rising value of hydrocarbons, any of these nations could become the next expropriator.     

International trade and food safety in developing countries

The World Bank has been promoting the concept that access to markets is an important part in the development of its clients i.e. third world countries, and is increasingly demanding attention for the removal of restrictions imposed by developed countries on international trade, especially with respect to developing countries. The majority of trade-limiting factors in developing countries relate to economics, poor infrastructure and lagging skills; food safety is still mainly the responsibility of the consumers. Improving food safety along western standards, however, may carry considerable costs and price food out of reach of the poor. Therefore, introduction of new food safety tools and rules need to be affordable and build on local food management customs rather than simply imposing western standards that are expensive to monitor. World Bank experience of investing in food safety indicates a number of issues that frequently surface, including (i) confusion between quality and safety, (ii) over regulation, (iii) selective enforcement, (iv) lack of integration of food laws and regulations in the overall legislative system, (v) multiplicity of responsible agencies, and (vi) the mismatch between the standards required in OECD- and in an developing-countries. It is recommended to improve awareness, simplify rules, improve skills and infrastructure, adapt food safety monitoring to local conditions, and help formulating HACCPs for niche products from developing countries. It is also recommended to ensure stronger voice of the poor in food safety decisions, and a greater participation of the poor and poor countries in international standard setting organizations.     

Fate of triadimefon and its metabolite triadimenol in jujube samples during jujube wine and vinegar processing

Chinese jujube (Zizyphus jujuba Miller) is an indigenous fruit with Chinese characteristics in China which is widely used in traditional medicines and also consumed as a food material. Chinese jujube is subjected to wide varieties of pesticides like triadimefon which are harmful to humans. In present study, the fate of triadimefon and its metabolite triadimenol during jujube wine and vinegar fermentation processing was assessed. Jujube samples collected from plants sprayed with triadimefon from field trials. The analysis of triadimefon and triadimenol residues were carried out by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) at different steps of the fermentation i.e fresh jujube, first and second jujube juice and pomace, jujube wine, and jujube vinegar. Processing factors (Pfs), which is defined as the ratio of pesticide residues in jujube sample to that in jujube wine or vinegar samples, were lower than 1 for triadimefon, indicating that food processing could reduce the pesticide level. But triadimefon was metabolised to triadimenol during this process with the Pfs of triadimenol in jujube wine and vinegar were 1.38 and 1.13, respectively, indicating that more attention is needed towards the metabolites during the processing. The study indicates the level of safety towards triadimefon in jujube beverage processing and allows the refining of the dietary risk analysis.     

Influence of environmental conditions and building structure on food quality: A survey of hand-crafted dairies in Northern Italy

The present study investigated several small dairies, located in mountain areas of Northern Italy, with the aim to identify critical factors that are frequently neglected despite their potentially decisive role in improving hygiene standards of dairy processing and work safety. The results highlighted the structural and procedural aspects involved in sanitary requirements of traditional dairy production.Our analysis has made it clear that processing environment is often inadequately protected from external contamination, and design and realisation of buildings is not suitable for food processing requirements. For example, the main critical points for food safety in relation to building structure are indoor layout of a dairy, and coating materials for floors and walls that, although smooth and washable, do not withstand chemical attack, environmental conditions, and mechanical stress. From a procedural point of view, cleaning operations are not carried out thoroughly, and working practices are hygienically deficient.     

Technological aspects of preparing affordable fermented complementary foods

The requirements and manufacturing procedure of complementary (weaning) foods is discussed. Nutritional requirements for infants (aged 6–12 months) include approx. 3 MJ energy and 14 g digestible protein per litre, of a semi-liquid porridge. Microbiological safety is enhanced by biological acidification (lactic acid fermentation) until pH ≤ 4.5. An evaluation of processing operations, e.g. soaking, germination, roasting, and fermentation is presented and their effect on safety and digestibility of the final product is discussed. Some scenarios are presented for complete processes to obtain shelf-stable, dry powdered formulas that meet the above requirements. Blends of cereals, rootcrops and proteinaceous legumes are prepared and subjected to lactic acid fermentation using a simple enrichment starter to ensure adequate acidification. Enzyme rich flour is used to reduce bulkiness. At small-scale production level, cooking and drying is best done by dry-toasting. Extrusion cooking is a promising technique that can be feasible at medium and larger-scale production levels.     

欧美清洁汽油的发展历程及对我国的启示

综述了美国、欧洲汽油质量标准变化历程以及清洁汽油质量升级采用的主要技术,分析了上述国家和地区汽油质量升级的路线和特点,总结了其汽油质量升级对我国清洁燃料发展的启示,提出了我国清洁汽油质量升级的建议及发展思路。     

Lactic fermented foods in Africa and their benefits

Lactic acid fermentation is an important food processing technology in Africa. This technology is indigenous and is adaptable to the culture of the people. This paper reviews the different raw materials and microorganisms which are used in producing lactic fermented food products in Africa. The beneficial aspects of this technology for improving food safety in Africa as a low-cost method of food preservation and in improving the nutritional quality of the food raw materials are discussed. Areas of research needs to enhance further the benefits of this technology are highlighted.     

Food safety challenges associated with traditional foods in German-speaking regions

The “German-speaking region” in Central Europe is characterized by a large variety of regional food specialities and long tradition in craftsman's skills and experience in safe small-scale food processing and preservation. There is also increasing interest in these traditional products in other countries. Hence, this paper discusses the properties of characteristic food products, and outlines the steps critical for their safety. Such foods include fermented milk products (in particular cheeses), meat and fish products, fermented vegetables, and baked goods such as sourdough breads and spiced cookies. Data analysed show, among others, that (1) hard cheeses made from raw milk are regarded as safe, due to effective hurdles which eliminate foodborne pathogens during production and ripening, and semi-hard cheeses made from raw milk – which are generally ripened for more than 60 days – exhibit only a low health risk if Good Manufacturing Practice (including mastitis control) and effective HACCP systems (e.g. control of starter activity) are implemented; (2) Listeria monocytogenes is not a hazard specific to products from raw milk since it may grow on the surface of smear- and mold ripened cheeses after recontamination, and can be effectively controlled by monitoring systems including environmental samples; (3) semi-dry and dry sausages have a favourable record of safety whereas, in the manufacture of some undried, spreadable types, salmonellae (especially in pork sausages) and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC; especially in sausages containing meat from ruminants) are frequently reduced only by one log cycle or less. Hence, the safety of these products critically depends on the quality of the raw material. This stresses the need of implementing Good Manufacturing Practice also in traditional processes.     

我国石油化工行业发展面临的机遇、挑战及其技术进步战略

阐述了世界能源化工行业的基本状况及发展趋势,分析了我国石油化工行业发展所面临的新机遇与新挑战。指出我国石油化工行业应通过技术创新,不断提升劣质油加工水平,提高油品质量;发展高端化工业务,提升竞争能力;发挥技术与产业优势,积极发展煤化工,推进资源多元化;发挥一体化优势,统筹多种资源的有效利用。     

Solid waste issue: Sources,composition, disposal,recycling, and valorization

Disposal of solid wastes is a stinging and widespread problem in both urban and rural areas in many developed and developing countries. Municipal solid waste (MSW) collection and disposal is one of the major problems of urban environment in most countries worldwide today. MSW management solutions must be financially sustainable, technically feasible, socially, legally acceptable and environmentally friendly. Solid waste management issue is the biggest challenge to the authorities of both small and large cities’.Valorization of food organic waste is one of the important current research areas. The conventional landfill, incineration, composting, and ways of handeling solid wastes are common as mature technologies for waste disposal. Traditionally, the most commonly used technologies for the treatment and valorization of the organic fraction of MSW are composting and anaerobic digestion (AD). The generation of organic solid waste (OSW); worldwide; is dramatically increasing each year. Most of the OSW’s are composed of agricultural waste, household food waste, human and animal wastes, etc. They are normally handled as animal feed, incinerated or disposed to landfill sites. OAW’s are comprised of materials rich in proteins, minerals, and sugars that could be used in other processes as substrates or raw materials.     

Seafood safety and quality: An analysis of the supply chain in the Sultanate of Oman

The globalization of trade in fish has created many challenges for the developing world specifically with regard to food safety and quality. International organisations have established a good basis for standards in international trade. Whilst these requirements are frequently embraced by the major importers (such as Japan, the EU and the USA), they often impose additional safety requirements and regularly identify batches which fail to meet their strict standards. Creating an effective national seafood control system which meets both the internal national needs as well the requirements for the export market can be challenging. Many countries adopt a dual system where seafood products for the major export markets are subject to tight control whilst the majority of the products (whether for the local market or for more regional trade) are less tightly controlled. With regional liberalization also occurring, deciding on appropriate controls is complex. In the Sultanate of Oman, fisheries production is one of the countries' chief sources of economic revenue after oil production and is a major source of the national food supply. In this paper the structure of the fish supply chain has been analysed and highlighted the different routes operating for the different markets. Although much of the fish are consumed within Oman, there is a major export trade to the local regional markets. Much smaller quantities meet the more stringent standards imposed by the major importing countries and exports to these are limited. The paper has considered the development of the Omani fish control system including the key legislative documents and the administrative structures that have been developed. Establishing modern controls which satisfy the demands of the major importers is possible but places additional costs on businesses. Enhanced controls such as HACCP and other management standards are required but can be difficult to justify when alternative markets do not specify these. These enhanced controls do however provide additional consumer protection and can bring benefits to local consumers. The Omani government is attempting to upgrade the system of controls and has made tremendous progress toward the implementation of HACCP and introducing enhanced management systems into its industrial sector. The existence of strengthened legislative and government support, including subsidies, has encouraged some businesses to implement HACCP. The current control systems have been reviewed and an SWOT analysis approach used to identify key factors for their future development. The study shows that seafood products in the supply chain are often exposed to lengthy handling and distribution process before reaching the consumers, a typical issue faced by many developing countries. As seafood products are often perishable, they safety is compromised if not adequately controlled. The enforcement of current food safety laws in the Sultanate of Oman is shared across various government agencies. Consequently, there is a need to harmonize all regulatory requirements, enhancing the domestic food protection and to continue to work towards a fully risk-based approach in order to compete successfully in the global market.     

纤维素乙醇生产技术及产业化现状

在阐述我国发展纤维素乙醇必要性的基础上,综述了纤维素乙醇的水解发酵、同步糖化发酵、同步糖化共发酵、同步多菌产酶水解发酵等工艺及研究进展,分析了各工艺优缺点,并讨论了各工艺过程需要解决的关键技术问题;概述了国内外纤维素乙醇的产业化现状;展望了纤维素乙醇的产业化前景。     

Industry’s need and expectations to meet food safety, 5th International Meeting: Noordwijk Food Safety and HACCP Forum 9–10 December 2002

Producing, processing or manufacturing foods which meet consumers’ and society’s expectations is a very complex undertaking. On one hand, we live in a world where the socio-economical situation and infrastructure, the environment, cultural values and regulatory requirements are different; on the other hand, the movement of people, trade of goods and services as well as communication have made food safety a global concern. Furthermore, everyday we are faced with new scientific findings bringing with them new hazards and new challenges. Therefore, ensuring food safety in today’s complex world is a daunting task and is possible only with a concerted effort of all sectors including government, consumer organizations and industry – a concept that the World Health Organisation referred to as the concept of Shared Responsibility. In spite of this, in many countries, in particular in Europe, there is sometimes a feeling of distrust towards the industry. This hampers effective collaboration between different sectors whereas, in today’s complex world, dialogue and partnership are needed more than ever. The present article outlines the needs and expectations of the food industry from other sectors so that it can meet its objectives, i.e. to provide consumers with safe and wholesome food and to contribute to their health.