Covariation between workplace physical and psychosocial stressors: evidence and implications for occupational health research and prevention

There is increasing interest in distinguishing the effects of physical and psychosocial workplace stressors on the aetiology of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSD). Modest associations have been found between psychosocial stressors and MSD, such as intensive load, monotonous work and low job control. Interpretation of these results has been limited by likely covariation between physical and psychosocial stressors. This investigation examined exposure covariation among blue- and white-collar workers employed in a mass production manufacturing environment (N = 410). Physical stressors were assessed from questionnaire and accelerometry. Psychosocial stressors were assessed from questionnaire. Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients were computed. An exploratory factor analysis procedure identified possible common factors linking specific physical and psychosocial stressors. Moderate to high correlations between some physical and psychosocial stressors showed evidence of covariation both across and within groups. Covariation was strongest among blue-collar production and low-status office workers. Factor analysis results showed considerable shared variance between some physical and psychosocial stressors, such as repetition and job control, suggesting that these disparate stressors manifest from common work organization factors that govern the structure of work. While recognizing the conceptual differences between physical and psychosocial stressors, these results call attention to the strong empirical relationships that can exist between some stressors in the workplace setting. To guard against ambiguous study findings that can occur when exposures are mixed, it is critical that future epidemiologic studies include information about the degree of association between task-level stressors. Future research on work organization determinants of task-level stressors, and their coincident occurrence in jobs with greater specialization, may provide promising new insights into the nature of risk for MSD and effective prevention strategies.     

Modeling the relationship between occupational stressors, psychosocial/physical symptoms and injuries in the construction industry

Injury statistics place the construction industry as a high-risk industry, making it necessary to investigate factors that influence accidents to be able to protect workers. Research was carried out to investigate the relationship existing among occupational stressors, psychological/physical symptoms and accident/injury and work days lost outcomes as experienced by manual workers engaged in a range of industrial construction occupations. Some of the occupational stressors significantly associated with self-reported and OSHA logged injuries were training, job certainty and safety climate of the company. The OSHA logged injuries were associated with the occurrence of headaches and feelings of tenseness on the job. These results imply that non-physical stressors should be included as a potential input associated with injuries in injury risk models for construction workers.

Relevance to industry

Traditional approaches to workers’ safety in the construction industry have focused on the physical and biomechanical aspects of work by improving tools, equipment and task completion methods. The impact of psychosocial factors, specifically stress as experienced by construction workers, is an area of growing research, which is yielding results that suggest overall work safety on the construction site should take into account psychosocial aspects of work.     

Compensation for occupational injuries and diseases: its effect upon prevention at the workplace

Abstract

In Switzerland, as in many other industrialized countries, the nature and extent of prevention at the workplace is determined, at least partially, by known cases of compensated occupational injuries and diseases. At both the national and international levels ∥ILO conventions) injuries and diseases that fit appropriate lists and definitions are eligible for compensation. It has been found, based upon an investigation of a representative sample (965 subjects) of the working population in the French-speaking region of Switzerland, that this restrictive view does not take into account the fact that a large proportion of injuries and diseases are claimed by the victims to be caused by their job. These injuries and diseases, responsible for at least one month's absence from work, are not considered to be eligible for compensation but must be covered by the patient's own insurance. Moreover, the survey showed that workers considered the ill effects on health and safety to be a consequence less of the physical working environment than of the work organization, and that this category of risks was not recognized. Thus, in addition to the reduction of hazards by the application of industrial hygiene, an informed improvement of the workplace and the work organization was required. Consequently, laws and regulations on occupational injuries and diseases should be changed in order to emphasize the role of more appropriate preventive tools, which includes ergonomics.     

Understanding the link between psychosocial work stressors and work-related musculoskeletal complaints

It is well established that psychosocial work stressors relate to employees' work-related musculoskeletal disorder (WRMSD) symptoms. Using a model investigating psychological strain as a mediator between work stressors and WRMSD complaints, this study demonstrated that high levels role conflict, low job control, and low safety-specific leadership are associated with increased employee strain. Strain, in turn, was related to higher levels of WRMSD symptoms of the wrist/hand, shoulders, and lower back. Partial mediation of some relationships was also found, suggesting that additional meditational mechanisms for the relationships between stressors and musculoskeletal symptoms are plausible. This work supports the notion that psychosocial stressors in the work environment have important links to employee health, especially WRMSDs.     

The impact of workplace change on occupational health and safety: A study of four manufacturing plants

This article examines the relationship between changes in the management of work organization and occupational health and safety (OHS) in four manufacturing companies in Australia between 1988 and 1995. The period is one in which the Australian manufacturing sector faced considerable change as it grappled with the pressures of global competition. Government policies as well as industry initiatives created an environment favoring the development of a “new workplace culture” in manufacturing enterprises. The greater levels of employee involvement and responsibility in many manufacturing workplaces suggested that the employees would gain a greater direct control over their work environment and the hazards inherent in that environment. The study suggests that three factors appear to mediate the translation of management practices from work organization and involvement over production matters to OHS. These are: changes in the management of people, including employee involvement and team working practices; the role and influence of OHS experts in shaping the priorities and methods used to manage OHS; and the degree and extent of union involvement in decisions within the organization. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Interactive effects from self-reported physical and psychosocial factors in the workplace on neck pain and disability in female office workers

This study explored the interaction between physical and psychosocial factors in the workplace on neck pain and disability in female computer users. A self-report survey was used to collect data on physical risk factors (monitor location, duration of time spent using the keyboard and mouse) and psychosocial domains (as assessed by the Job Content Questionnaire). The neck disability index was the outcome measure. Interactions among the physical and psychosocial factors were examined in analysis of covariance. High supervisor support, decision authority and skill discretion protect against the negative impact of (1) time spent on computer-based tasks, (2) non-optimal placement of the computer monitor and (3) long duration of mouse use. Office workers with greater neck pain experience a combination of high physical and low psychosocial stressors at work. Prevention and intervention strategies that target both sets of risk factors are likely to be more successful than single intervention programmes.

Statement of Relevance: The results of this study demonstrate that the interaction of physical and psychosocial factors in the workplace has a stronger association with neck pain and disability than the presence of either factor alone. This finding has important implications for strategies aimed at the prevention of musculoskeletal problems in office workers.     

Translation practice in the workplace: contextual analysis and implications for machine translation

This paper reports the results of a qualitative study which investigated localisation activities performed by translators working in two Language Service Providers. It argues that maintaining the appropriate quality level in this setting is a collaborative task which involves several translators. This perspective entails taking a broader view of the translation process than usually found in the Machine Translation (MT) literature and detailing the various knowledge sources which are deployed in this collaborative effort. The impact of collaboration on trust is examined, and a comparison is made between the relatively seamless flow of work between translators and the more strained relationships with remote contributors. In support of this view, the paper contrasts the flexibility of the analysed work practices with the rigid ways which tend to be followed when introducing MT into this setting. We identify the need to support collaboration and communication more actively as a broader issue in translation settings. While current strategies for introducing MT tend to further isolate translators from remote contributors, we propose that MT can serve as the catalyst for establishing a more dynamic and collaborative relationship between them.     

Summary and prospects: occupational health and safety

Abstract

This summary covers three conference sessions on occupational health and safety, of which six papers are included in this issue of Ergonomics. Based on these sessions we will comment on the role of ergonomics programmes in occupational health and safety in industry. The summary is divided into the following topics: goal, international aspects, epidemiology, team consideration, problem analysis, development of solutions, implementation and evaluation.     

Electronic surveillance of Internet access in the American workplace: implications for management

Software that enables sophisticated and comprehensive electronic surveillance of employee Internet access is widely used by American businesses. No federal or state statute prohibits private employers from monitoring their employees' email or the websites they access. Corporate managers opt for surveillance to protect their corporations from legal exposure arising from employee misconduct, such as downloading or emailing pornographic material; to protect against the improper disclosure of proprietary information over the Internet; and because surveillance software is inexpensive. While the reasons offered by employers for conducting electronic surveillance may be valid, there are competing considerations. This paper reviews surveillance technologies, discusses arguments for utilizing electronic surveillance, and concludes with legal issues arising from surveillance and implications for management.     

The associations between psychosocial workload and mental health complaints in different age groups

The objective of the present study was to explore associations between psychosocial workload and mental health complaints in different age groups. A questionnaire was sent to 2021 employees of a Dutch railway company. Six aspects of psychosocial workload (work pressure, mental workload, emotional workload, autonomy, social support from colleagues and social support from supervisors) and three mental health outcomes (work-related fatigue, stress and burnout) were assessed. Associations between the aspects of psychosocial workload (distributed into tertiles) and health complaints were analysed by logistic regression analysis in four age groups (22–35, 36–45, 46–55 and 56–66 years old). In all age groups, worse work pressure was a significant risk factor for having mental health complaints. Worse emotional load in the younger employees and lack of social support in older employees were associated with a higher risk of having mental health complaints. Age-specific preventive measures should be implemented on both individual and group levels.

Statement of Relevance: With an ageing workforce, understanding relationships between age and work-related health ailments is increasingly important. This study found that emotional workload in younger and lack of social support in older employees were associated with a higher risk of mental health complaints. Work pressure was a risk factor in all age groups.     

The associations between psychosocial workload and mental health complaints in different age groups

The objective of the present study was to explore associations between psychosocial workload and mental health complaints in different age groups. A questionnaire was sent to 2021 employees of a Dutch railway company. Six aspects of psychosocial workload (work pressure, mental workload, emotional workload, autonomy, social support from colleagues and social support from supervisors) and three mental health outcomes (work-related fatigue, stress and burnout) were assessed. Associations between the aspects of psychosocial workload (distributed into tertiles) and health complaints were analysed by logistic regression analysis in four age groups (22-35, 36-45, 46-55 and 56-66 years old). In all age groups, worse work pressure was a significant risk factor for having mental health complaints. Worse emotional load in the younger employees and lack of social support in older employees were associated with a higher risk of having mental health complaints. Age-specific preventive measures should be implemented on both individual and group levels. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: With an ageing workforce, understanding relationships between age and work-related health ailments is increasingly important. This study found that emotional workload in younger and lack of social support in older employees were associated with a higher risk of mental health complaints. Work pressure was a risk factor in all age groups.     

Technical Note: Method for objective assessment of physical work load at the workplace

This paper presents a method for objective assessment of physical work load at the workplace. The method is based on the DynaPort ADL Monitor. Using accelerometry, this monitor enables the assessment of gross motor activity as it occurs during the activities of daily living (ADL). A case study is conducted to explore the usefulness of the monitor in support of occupational research. The focus is on the cause and reduction of mechanical low back pain (LBP). A patient suffering from mechanical LBP participated in the study. He worked as messenger in contrast with his usual occupation. The patient was examined in both occupations using the monitor. The ADL profiles indicated that the messenger job was more likely to cause LBP than the other occupation of a mechanic.     

Reliable exposure assessment strategies for physical ergonomics stressors in construction and other non-routinized work

The objective of this research was to provide guidelines for the reliable assessment of ergonomics exposures in non-routinized work. Using a discrete-interval observational sampling approach, two or three observers collected a total of 5852 observations on tasks performed by three construction trades (iron workers, carpenters and labourers) for periods of several weeks. For each observation, nine exposure variables associated with awkward body postures, tool use and load handling were recorded. The frequency of exposure to each variable was calculated for each worker during each of the tasks on each of the days. ANOVA was used to assess the importance of task in explaining between-worker and within-worker variability in exposures across days. A statistical re-sampling method (bootstrap) was used to evaluate the reliability of exposure estimates for groups of workers performing the same task for different sampling periods. Most exposures were found to vary significantly across construction tasks within trade, and between-worker exposure variability was generally smaller than within-worker exposure variability within task. Bootstrapping showed that the reliability of the group estimates exposure for the most variable exposures within task tended to improve as the assessment periods approached 5 – 6 d, with marginal improvements for longer assessment periods. Reliable group estimates of exposure for the least variable exposures within task were obtained with 1 or 2 d of observation. The results of this study demonstrate that an initial estimate of the important environmental or task sources of exposure variability can be used to develop an efficient sampling strategy that provides reliable estimates of ergonomics exposures during non-routinized work.     

Reliable exposure assessment strategies for physical ergonomics stressors in construction and other non-routinized work

The objective of this research was to provide guidelines for the reliable assessment of ergonomics exposures in non-routinized work. Using a discrete-interval observational sampling approach, two or three observers collected a total of 5852 observations on tasks performed by three construction trades (iron workers, carpenters and labourers) for periods of several weeks. For each observation, nine exposure variables associated with awkward body postures, tool use and load handling were recorded. The frequency of exposure to each variable was calculated for each worker during each of the tasks on each of the days. ANOVA was used to assess the importance of task in explaining between-worker and within-worker variability in exposures across days. A statistical re-sampling method (bootstrap) was used to evaluate the reliability of exposure estimates for groups of workers performing the same task for different sampling periods. Most exposures were found to vary significantly across construction tasks within trade, and between-worker exposure variability was generally smaller than within-worker exposure variability within task. Bootstrapping showed that the reliability of the group estimates exposure for the most variable exposures within task tended to improve as the assessment periods approached 5-6 d, with marginal improvements for longer assessment periods. Reliable group estimates of exposure for the least variable exposures within task were obtained with 1 or 2 d of observation. The results of this study demonstrate that an initial estimate of the important environmental or task sources of exposure variability can be used to develop an efficient sampling strategy that provides reliable estimates of ergonomics exposures during non-routinized work.     

A computer-aided tool for ergonomic workplace design and preventive health care

Preventive health care is one of the basic challenges facing ergonomics. The aim to prevent occupationally generated musculoskeletal disorders and diseases may be achieved by appropriate workplace and product design. ERGOMan is a computer-aided 3D man model suitable for ergonomic and movement simulation at industrial workstations. Within a common project of the above mentioned institutions ERGOMan's inventory of ergonomics design tools shall be enhanced in a way that ERGOMan will be able to give detailed information on load or stress situations, which might effect the executability and tolerability of work situations with high probability. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Evaluation of a workplace technology for mental health assessment: A meaning-making process

This paper describes the results of a summative evaluation conducted to explore the usability and acceptability of an automated telephone-based technology, designed and developed as a screening tool for mental health disorders in the workplace. The system screens employees for symptoms and subsequently provides educational information and referrals to improve mental health and enhance productivity. The qualitative evaluation was a sub-study of a larger randomized controlled trial (RCT). We conducted in-depth interviews with 15 individuals who participated in the RCT and had used the system. A phenomenological theoretical framework was utilized to analyze the narrative data. Results indicated that participants had mostly positive experience with the system and perceived it as a confidential program that allowed them to reflect on their symptoms without inhibition, fear of judgment or embarrassment. We also learned that asking mere questions about mental health symptoms can be a positive, instructive and possibly a restorative experience. There is a likelihood that for many participants, exposure to questions about their emotional and mental distress validated their feelings about their symptoms and was sufficiently compelling to promote help-seeking behavior. This evaluation study demonstrates that computers can be utilized in the workplace as effective screening and educational tools to improve employees’ mental health.     

Ergonomics and occupational safety and health: An ILO perspective

The ILO has a mandate to protect workers against sickness, diseases and injuries due to workplace hazards and risks including ergonomic and work organization risk factors. One of the main functions for the ILO is to develop international standards related to labour and work. ILO standards have exerted considerable influence on the laws and regulations of member States. The ILO standards take the form of international Conventions and Recommendations. ILO Conventions and Recommendations relevant to protection of workers against ergonomic risk factors at the workplace include Convention No. 127 and Recommendation No.128 which specify the international requirements concerning the manual transport of a load. To help member States in applying the ILO standards, the ILO produces practical guides and training manuals on ergonomics at work and collects and analyses national practices and laws on ergonomics at the workplace. The ILO also conducts technical cooperation activities in many countries on ergonomics to support and strengthen the capacities of its tripartite constituents in dealing with workplace ergonomic and work organization risks. The ILO’s technical cooperation activities give priorities on the promotion of voluntary, participatory and action-oriented actions to improve working conditions and work organizations of the small and medium sized enterprises. This paper reviews ILO’s policies and activities on ergonomics in relation to occupational safety and health and prescribes ILO’s considerations for its future work on ergonomics.