The added benefit of an extra practice session in virtual reality on the development of presentation skills: A randomized control trial

Developing oral presentation skills is an essential objective of higher education. While previous research emphasized the importance of practice for developing oral presentation skills (OPS), it remains unclear what the optimal amount of practice is. This experimental field study examined the added benefit of an extra practice session in virtual reality (VR) on the progression of 35 graduate students in OPS, using a pre-test post-test design. In addition, the mediating effect of public speaking anxiety (PSA) was examined and the relation between PSA_, preparation practices, perceived utility of VR and OPS was explored. Questionnaires and performance assessments were used in data collection. Results showed that participants gained benefits from practicing a third time before a virtual audience. Both anxious and non-anxious participants progressed similarly on presentation skills and experienced the VR intervention comparably. However, the optimal number of practice presentations remains unclear and should be further investigated.     

Human–Computer Interface Issues in Controlling Virtual Reality With Brain–Computer Interface

We have integrated the Graz brain–computer interface (BCI) system with a highly immersive virtual reality (VR) Cave-like system. This setting allows for a new type of experience, whereby participants can control a virtual world using imagery of movement. However, current BCI systems still have many limitations. In this article we present two experiments exploring the different constraints posed by current BCI systems when used in VR. In the first experiment we let the participants make free choices during the experience and compare their BCI performance with participants using BCI without free choice; this is unlike most previous work in this area, in which participants are requested to obey cues. In the second experiment we allowed participants to control a virtual body with motor imagery. We provide both quantitative and subjective results, regarding both BCI accuracy and the nature of the subjective experience in this new type of setting.     

Research on auxiliary methods of swimming training virtual simulation technology based on embedded computer✰

Virtual Reality (VR) is a partnership between an independent hardware and software integrated system that ships it into a nearly simulated environment. Studies have shown that technology modifies variables related to an individual's visual and motor skills. Therefore, there are many possible explanations for the positive effects of encounters in sports that need to be considered using virtual reality. Virtual Reality Optimization Technique (VROT) can also trigger motor learning in the brain responsible for motor activity, thus using motor imaging (MI) technology, even when no action is occurring. This application is used to train swimming. This provides the criteria for evaluation, and the evaluated group will receive the experimental group. Swimming is one of the most popular games to train students and perform better results using the virtual reality technique. Solving the swimming lesson system is improving the ecological validity of the study, maintaining the great potential for cognitive and behavioral research, and separating cognitive behavior. Perform a comparative analysis of the student's correct and incorrect swimming practice. The proposed system analyzes the result using virtual reality technique based on the FPGA controller and getting better performance results.     

Development of a physically behaved robot work cell in virtual reality for task teaching

Robot task teaching on a real work cell is expensive and sometimes risky. This cost and risk can be avoided by using virtual reality technology. Using the simulated environment in virtual reality (VR), the operator can practise, explore and preview the operations for possible problems that might occur during implementation. It is therefore of practical importance to build the virtual robot work cell in VR that can facilitate the study of the performance of robotic tasks such as robotic assembly. This paper describes our work in incorporating physical behaviours of virtual objects into VR for robot task teaching. To facilitate the task teaching, we developed visual and audio cues which help visualise the dynamic interactions between virtual objects. Dynamic sensing capability is incorporated in the simulated environment. A simplified force sensor is modelled and simulated. The physical behaviours of the virtual objects are simulated using physics-based approach. A virtual robot work cell is built incorporating the developed features and an example for the task teaching is given. The implementation includes view tracking using virtual camera, visual and audio rendering, and the user interface developed in the VR. The current implementation was carried out on a PC-based VR platform, with the programs developed using Watcom C++.     

A comparative evaluation of viewing metaphors on psychophysical skills education in an interactive virtual environment

In an empirical evaluation, we examined the effect of viewing condition on psychophysical skills education in an interactive 3D simulation to train users in electrical circuitry. We compared an immersive head-mounted display (HMD)-based viewing metaphor versus a limited, desktop-based virtual reality (DVR) viewing metaphor with interaction using a spatial user interface. Psychophysical skills education involves the association of cognitive functions with motor functions to make the task autonomous with repeated practice. In electrical circuitry, this is demonstrated by the fine movements involved in handling and manipulating components on the electrical circuit, particularly while measuring electrical parameters. We created an interactive circuitry simulation (IBAS) where participants could learn about electrical measurement instruments such as the ammeter, voltmeter and multimeter, in a simulated breadboard VR system. Twenty-four participants utilized the simulation (12 in each condition), and the quantitative and qualitative aspects of psychophysical skills education with respect to the viewing metaphor were examined. Each viewing condition in IBAS was head-tracked and non-stereoscopic. Perspective correction was coupled with head-tracking in the DVR condition. The key quantitative measures were cognitive questionnaires addressing different levels of Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy and a real-world psychophysical task addressing various levels of Dave’s psychomotor taxonomy. The qualitative measures were the Witmer–Singer sense of presence questionnaire and self-report. Results suggest that there was a significant increase in cognition post-experiment in both DVR and HMD viewing conditions in levels of knowledge, application, analysis and evaluation. Results also revealed a significant learning benefit with respect to the higher level concepts pertaining to evaluation in the HMD condition as compared to DVR. Participants seem to have enjoyed a greater level of affordance in task performance and spent a larger amount of time to complete the simulated exercises as well as manually maneuvered to further distances in the HMD viewing condition as compared to DVR viewing.     

Virtual reality application influences cognitive load-mediated creativity components and creative performance in engineering design

Virtual reality (VR) can promote design performance, and may generate a high cognitive load and affect creative design thinking as well. In order to examine the effect of VR application on cognitive load and engineering design creativity, this study recruited 81 eighth-grade students as participants and employed a non-equivalent-groups quasi-experimental design to examine how VR application influences creativity components and creative performance. A creativity component scale (creative motivation, creative thinking, and professional cognition), a measurement of creative performance, and a cognitive load scale were used to collect data. The study also investigated the ability of VR application to predict creativity components and creative performance, using cognitive load as the mediator. The conclusions are as follows: (1) VR application had marked effects on professional cognition and creative motivation but no effect on creative thinking skills. (2) VR application had marked effects on the novelty and usefulness aspects of creative performance, particularly with respect to usefulness. (3) VR application had marked effects on extraneous and germane cognitive load, but no influence on intrinsic cognitive load, and (4) Both VR application and cognitive load were able to predict creativity components and creative performance. Their abilities to predict creative performance approached an acceptable level. Nevertheless, VR application had no effect on general creative thinking skills; therefore, other teaching strategies are needed to strengthen creative thinking.     

Using auditory event-related EEG potentials to assess presence in virtual reality

The feeling of presence in a virtual reality (VR) is a concept without a standardized objective measurement. In the present study, we used event-related brain potentials (ERP) of the electroencephalogram (EEG) elicited by tones, which are not related to VR, as an objective indicator for the presence experience within a virtual environment. Forty participants navigated through a virtual city and rated their sensation of being in the VR (experience of presence), while hearing frequent standard tones and infrequent deviant tones, which were irrelevant for the VR task. Different ERP components elicited by the tones were compared between participants experiencing a high level of presence and participants with a low feeling of presence in the virtual city. Early ERP components, which are more linked to automatic stimulus processing, showed no correlation with presence experience. In contrast, an increased presence experience was associated with decreased late negative slow wave amplitudes, which are associated with central stimulus processing and allocation of attentional resources. This result supports the assumption that increased presence is associated with a strong allocation of attentional resources to the VR, which leads to a decrease of attentional resources available for processing VR-irrelevant stimuli. Hence, ERP components elicited by the tones are reduced. Particularly, frontal negative slow waves turned out to be accurate predictors for presence experience. Summarizing, late ERPs elicited by VR-irrelevant tones differ as a function of presence experience in VR and provide a valuable method for measuring presence in VR.     

Development and evaluation of a virtual training environment for on-line robot programming

The paper reports on the development and evaluation of a virtual reality system to support training in on-line programming of industrial robots. The system was evaluated by running training experiments with three groups of engineering students in the real, virtual and virtual augmented robot conditions. Results suggest that, the group with prior training in the virtual reality system augmented with cognitive/perceptual aids clearly outperformed the group that executed the tasks in the real robot only. The group trained in the non-augmented virtual reality system did not demonstrate the same results. It is concluded that the cognitive/perceptual aids embedded in the augmented virtual reality system had a positive effect on all task performance metrics and on the consistency of results across participants on the real robot. Virtual training environments need not be designed as close as possible to the real ones. Specifically designed augmented cognitive/perceptual aids may foster skill development that can be transferred to the real task. The suggested training environment is simple and cost effective in training of novices in an entry level task.     

Creation of a new set of dynamic virtual reality faces for the assessment and training of facial emotion recognition ability

The ability to recognize facial emotions is target behaviour when treating people with social impairment. When assessing this ability, the most widely used facial stimuli are photographs. Although their use has been shown to be valid, photographs are unable to capture the dynamic aspects of human expressions. This limitation can be overcome by creating virtual agents with feasible expressed emotions. The main objective of the present study was to create a new set of dynamic virtual faces with high realism that could be integrated into a virtual reality (VR) cyberintervention to train people with schizophrenia in the full repertoire of social skills. A set of highly realistic virtual faces was created based on the Facial Action Coding System. Facial movement animation was also included so as to mimic the dynamism of human facial expressions. Consecutive healthy participants (n = 98) completed a facial emotion recognition task using both natural faces (photographs) and virtual agents expressing five basic emotions plus a neutral one. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed no significant difference in participants’ accuracy of recognition between the two presentation conditions. However, anger was better recognized in the VR images, and disgust was better recognized in photographs. Age, the participant’s gender and reaction times were also explored. Implications of the use of virtual agents with realistic human expressions in cyberinterventions are discussed.     

Effects of line length,number of lines,line spacing,and font size on reading performance of Chinese text in virtual reality environment

The increasing importance of virtual reality (VR) necessitates reading in VR environments. Nonetheless, there is a lack of research on the factors influencing reading performance (speed and accuracy) in VR. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of line length, number of lines, line spacing, and font size on the response time and accuracy of a Chinese comprehension task in VR. Thirty-two participants were required to read Chinese passages and answer 32 multiple-choice questions in VR. The results indicated that line spacing significantly affected reading speed. Meanwhile, the interaction between the number of lines and line spacing had a significant impact on reading accuracy. To improve reading speed and accuracy, it is advisable to use single-line spacing, 20 characters per line, and ensure that the vertical distance created by the number of lines and line spacing does not exceed the optimal field of view.     

Motivation,engagement, and performance across multiple virtual reality sessions and levels of immersion

This study investigated changes in learners' motivation, engagement, performance, and spatial reasoning over time and across different levels of virtual reality (VR) immersion. Undergraduate participants explored a virtual solar system via a moderately immersive or highly immersive VR platform over three sessions. In a third condition, participants initially learned with moderate immersion and transitioned to higher immersion after the second session. Following research on novelty effects, we explored whether subjective experiences and performance would decline over time (e.g., decreasing motivation or performance) as participants became familiar with the virtual environment and tools. However, we hypothesized that transitional immersion (i.e., switching from moderate to higher immersion) might lead to a renewed sense of novelty. Results suggested that both moderate and higher levels of immersion were motivating, engaging, and supportive of learning. In contrast to predictions based on novelty effects, these outcomes did not decline overall as learners gained familiarity with the systems. However, transitional immersion emerged as a promising and testable pedagogical approach for future VR education. All participants also showed gains in spatial reasoning.     

Interfaces That Heal: Coupling Real and Virtual Objects to Treat Spider Phobia

Tactile augmentation is a simple, safe, inexpensive interaction technique for adding physical texture and force feedback cues to virtual objects. This study explored whether virtual reality (VR) exposure therapy reduces fear of spiders and whether giving patients the illusion of physically touching the virtual spider increases treatment effectiveness. Eight clinically phobic students were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups-(a) no treatment, (b) VR with no tactile cues, or (c) VR with a physically "touchable" virtual spider-as were 28 nonclinically phobic students. Participants in the 2 VR treatment groups received three 1-hr exposure therapy sessions resulting in clinically significant drops in behavioral avoidance and subjective fear ratings. The tactile augmentation group showed the greatest progress on behavioral measures. On average, participants in this group, who only approached to 5.5 ft of a live spider on the pretreatment Behavioral Avoidance Test (Garcia-Palacios, 2002), were able to approach to 6 in. of the spider after VR exposure treatment and did so with much less anxiety (see www.vrpain.com for details). Practical implications are discussed.     

Using immersive game-based virtual reality to teach fire-safety skills to children

Virtual reality (VR) has been used both to simulate situations that are too dangerous to practice in real life and as a tool to help children learn. This study was conducted as part of a larger more comprehensive long-term research project which aims to combine the two techniques and demonstrate a novel application of the result, using immersive VR to help children learn about fire hazards and practice escape techniques. In the current study, a CAVE was used to immerse participants in a fire scene. To improve the children’s motivation for learning over prior VR fire-safety training methods, game-like interface interaction techniques were used and students were encouraged to explore the virtual world. Rather than being passive viewers, as in prior related studies, the children were given full control to navigate through the virtual environment and to interact with virtual objects using a game pad and a 6DOF wand. Students identified home fire hazards with a partner and then practiced escaping from a simulated fire in the virtual environment. To test for improved motivation, a user study was completed. Results indicate that students were more engaged by the new game-like learning environment and that they reported that they found the experience fun and intriguing. Their enhanced enthusiasm for what is relatively standard fire-safety information demonstrates the promise of using game-based virtual environments for vital but otherwise tedious fire-safety skills training for children.     

Effects of Displays on Visually Controlled Task Performance in Three‐Dimensional Virtual Reality Environment

This study aims to evaluate three commercial virtual reality (VR) display devices on the market via a 3D Fitts's task. In addition, a symptom questionnaire was used to assess the severity of cybersickness symptoms induced by these displays. Ten participants performed repetitive pointing tasks over different conditions of varying display devices, movement directions, and indices of difficulty. On the basis of the results, the projection display obtained the best task performance with the lowest movement time and the highest throughput. It had the least symptoms among the three display devices. The HMD gave the worst results in all criteria. The 3D TV could be considered as good as the projection display in task performance but induced slight level of discomfort, fatigue, and eyestrain. These findings not only provided an initial understanding of differences between the 3D TV and the other two familiar display devices in human performance when interacting within a 3D VE but also pointed a direction to effectively improve future VR display technique.     

虚拟现实中手重映射的偏移检测阈值研究

针对虚拟现实交互（virtual reality interaction,VRI）中环境限制导致使用手的操作效率较低的问题,提出了虚拟现实中手重映射的固定偏移检测阈值估计方法以提高使用手的操作效率,该方法从人的心理感知出发,引入心理测量函数计算出偏移检测阈值从而提升交互体验。首先,根据双选择强制选择（two alternative forced choice,2AFC）理论设计实验,记录被试者使用不同偏移的虚拟手完成目标抓取任务过程中的感觉差异作为评价标准,同时记录被试者完成任务的时间,根据心理测量函数（Quickpsy）对感觉差异进行计算,估计重映射交互的检测阈值;通过协方差确定虚拟手偏移量超过阈值后的方向、幅度和轴向及其相互作用是影响触碰任务性能的显著因素,若在阈值范围内,上述因素就不再影响任务性能;最后,以某VR（virtual reality,虚拟现实）医院物资智能配送系统为例验证所提方法的可行性。研究结果表明,适当的偏移缩短了用户完成触碰任务的时间,能够在提升交互效率的同时降低传统偏移量计算方法对VR的交互保真度的影响。     

Using mobile applications for learning: Effects of simulation design,visual-motor integration,and spatial ability on high school students’ conceptual understanding

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of simulation design, visual-motor integration, and spatial ability on students’ conceptual understandings of projectile motion and collision. We developed three simulations including two mobile applications (app) and a computer simulation. One app (TA) employed the multi-touch feature for virtual manipulation, the other (TAG) implemented the multi-touch and tilt features, while the computer simulation (CS) was performed using a mouse. 211 10th graders were assigned to the three simulation groups. The results indicated that on the items of basic concepts, the CS and TA groups performed significantly better than the TAG group, whereas for the advanced concepts, the TA and TAG groups scored significantly higher than the CS group. Also, high visual-motor integration students did significantly better on the advanced concepts than low visual-motor integration students. Additionally, the interaction effect between simulation design and spatial ability showed that the two apps had a similar effect on students with different levels of spatial ability. The results suggest that mobile apps could narrow the performance gap between students with different levels of spatial ability, but effective interactions with the multi-touch interface of apps may require new skills such as visual-motor integration.     

INTERVALES: INTERactive Virtual and Augmented framework for industriaL Environment and Scenarios

One of Industry 4.0’s greatest challenges for companies is the digitization of their processes and the integration of new related technologies such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), which can be used for training purposes, design, or assistance during industrial operations. Moreover, recent results and industrial proofs of concept show that these technologies demonstrate critical advantages in the industry. Nevertheless, the authoring and editing process of virtual and augmented content remains time-consuming, especially in complex industrial scenarios. While the use of interactive virtual environments through virtual and augmented reality presents new possibilities for many domains, a wider adoption of VR/AR is possible only if the authoring process is simplified, allowing for more rapid development and configuration without the need for advanced IT skills. To meet this goal, this study presents a new framework: INTERVALES. First, framework architecture is proposed, along with its different modules; this study then shows that the framework can be updated by not only IT workers, but also other job experts. The UML data model is presented to format and simplify the authoring processes for both VR and AR. This model takes into account virtual and augmented environments, the possible interactions, and ease operations orchestration. Finally, this paper presents the implementation of an industrial use case composed of collaborative robotic (cobotic) and manual assembly workstations in VR and AR based on INTERVALES data.     

A systematic review of the application of interactive virtual reality to sport

Virtual reality (VR) technology is being increasingly used by athletes, coaches, and other sport-related professionals. The present systematic review aimed to document research on the application of VR to sport to better understand the outcomes that have emerged in this work. Research literature databases were searched, and the results screened to identify articles reporting applications of interactive VR to sport with healthy human participants. Twenty articles were identified and coded to document the study aims, research designs, participant characteristics, sport types, VR technology, measures, and key findings. From the review, it was shown that interactive VR applications have enhanced a range of performance, physiological, and psychological outcomes. The specific effects have been influenced by factors related to the athlete and the VR system, which comprise athlete factors, VR environment factors, task factors, and the non-VR environment factors. Important variables include the presence of others in the virtual environment, competitiveness, task autonomy, immersion, attentional focus, and feedback. The majority of research has been conducted on endurance sports, such as running, cycling, and rowing, and more research is required to examine the use of interactive VR in skill-based sports. Additional directions for future research and reporting standards for researchers are suggested.     

Virtual reality in problem-based learning contexts: Effects on the problem-solving performance,vocabulary acquisition and motivation of English language learners

Learning a foreign language requires interaction with language input while involved in a task. Given that problem-based learning (PBL) offers hands-on application in realistic contexts, and that virtual reality (VR) enables learners to interact with multiple modalities of information, this study examines how the integration of VR technology into PBL contexts affects students' motivation for, problem-solving during, and vocabulary acquisition in learning English as a foreign language (EFL). A total of 84 engineering majors who enrolled in a course of English for specific purposes were randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. Students in the experimental group participated in a VR-assisted PBL context, in which they were to view a PBL scenario using VR technology and then to create VR videos about solving the given problems. Those in the control group participated in a PBL context without the use of VR technology for viewing and solving the identical scenario. After the intervention, all the students wrote a problem-solving analysis, took a vocabulary knowledge test, completed a learning motivation questionnaire, and participated in individual interviews. The results showed that the students in the experimental group significantly outperformed those in the control group in terms of vocabulary acquisition, and were more motivated to learn English related to their future careers, whereas there was no significant difference in the problem-solving performance of the two groups. Implications of these findings highlight the value of engaging EFL learners in immersive environments for contextualized learning through the integrated use of VR and PBL.     

The stress and workload of virtual reality training: the effects of presence,immersion and flow

The present investigation evaluated the effects of virtual reality (VR) training on the performance, perceived workload and stress response to a live training exercise in a sample of Soldiers. We also examined the relationship between the perceptions of that same VR as measured by engagement, immersion, presence, flow, perceived utility and ease of use with the performance, workload and stress reported on the live training task. To a degree, these latter relationships were moderated by task performance, as measured by binary (Go/No-Go) ratings. Participants who reported positive VR experiences also tended to experience lower stress and lower workload when performing the live version of the task. Thus, VR training regimens may be efficacious for mitigating the stress and workload associated with criterion tasks, thereby reducing the ultimate likelihood of real-world performance failure.

Practitioner Summary: VR provides opportunities for training in artificial worlds comprised of highly realistic features. Our virtual room clearing scenario facilitated the integration of Training and Readiness objectives and satisfied training doctrine obligations in a compelling engaging experience for both novice and experienced trainees.