Oxidation Behavior at 900°C of Austenitic,Ferritic, and Duplex Stainless Steels Manufactured by Powder Metallurgy

This study examines the resistance to cyclic oxidation at 900°C of two commercial P/M stainless steels—one austenitic (AISI 316L), the other ferritic (AISI 434L)—and of three duplex stainless steels of different compositions. The test results show that the porosity of these materials leads to notable differences between their high-temperature oxidation behavior and that of conventional stainless steels of similar composition. In the case of P/M materials, the resistance to oxidation and the chemical composition of the oxides formed are strongly influenced not only by the degree of porosity of each material, but also by the concentration of Ni in the base metal. In the conditions adopted in the study, ferritic stainless steel was found to provide the best high-temperature oxidation resistance.     

441铁素体不锈钢在模拟汽车废气环境中的氧化行为

采用增重法研究了441铁素体不锈钢在模拟汽车废气环境中于900~1050 ℃范围内的氧化行为。运用XRD、SEM以及EDS技术分析了试样表面氧化膜的形貌和结构特征。结果表明,441铁素体不锈钢在汽车废气环境中的上限服役温度在900 ℃左右,该温度下形成的氧化膜为双层结构,外层的Mn-Cr尖晶石层和内部的Cr₂O₃层。当氧化温度升到950 ℃及以上时,氧化膜上出现瘤状氧化物,氧化物瘤沿初期Mn-Cr尖晶石层两侧分布,外部主要是铁的氧化物,内部为铁铬氧化物。氧化温度达到1050 ℃时,氧化物瘤内部会形成较多空隙。氧化物瘤的生长导致发生失稳氧化,并使氧化动力学从抛物线规律转变为直线规律。     

退火工艺对29Cr-4Mo超级铁素体不锈钢微观组织的影响

以冷轧态29Cr-4Mo超级铁素体不锈钢无缝钢管为研究对象,研究了不同退火工艺对29Cr-4Mo超级铁素体不锈钢无缝钢管冷轧后微观组织的影响。结果表明,29Cr-4Mo超级铁素体不锈钢夹杂物主要成分为Cr2O3·MnO·Al2O3；在900 ℃下保温30 min,晶界三角连接处和夹杂物附近率先生成了少量σ相,σ相析出的平均面积分数随时间的延长而增加,随温度的升高而减少；当温度升高至1000 ℃,保温50 min未见有σ相析出,在900~1050 ℃整个温度区间内未见有χ相析出；建立了Sellars模型下铁素体再结晶晶粒长大经验公式,通过对比分析计算值与实验值,结果显示该公式能准确预测整个退火过程中的平均晶粒尺寸大小。     

模拟热轧工艺条件下304不锈钢的氧化行为

通过TGA(热重分析)测定了在模拟热轧过程的1000℃～1200℃空气中304奥氏体不锈钢短期氧化过程的质量变化,并采用SEM、EDS、GDE-OES,XPS和XRD等手段观察和分析了氧化膜的形貌、组成与结构.结果表明:在1000℃和1100℃氧化60 min的时间内,304不锈钢的氧化过程基本遵从抛物线规律;在120...     

合金元素对铸造Fe-Cr铁素体不锈钢耐浓硫酸腐蚀性能的影响

采用电化学技术、浸泡腐蚀及能谱分析等研究了合金元素对铸造Fe-Cr铁素体不锈钢耐浓硫酸腐蚀行为的影响。结果表明:随铬含量的增加,Fe-Cr合金的耐浓硫酸腐蚀性能增强,单一的铬合金化不能使Fe-Cr合金在60℃,98%H2SO4中自钝化;钼能促进Fe-Cr25-Mo合金的钝化和自钝化,随钼含量的增加,Fe-Cr25-Mo合金的耐浓硫酸腐蚀性能增强;辅助合金元素镍、铜可促进Fe-Cr25Mo2合金的钝化和自钝化,而钛、铌的影响不大。     

Effects of Microalloying and Heat-Treatment Temperature on the Toughness of 26Cr–3.5Mo Super Ferritic Stainless Steels

The effects of Ni content and heat-treatment process on the toughness of a super ferritic stainless steel with 26 wt% Cr and 3.5 wt% Mo were investigated. It was found that with the increase of Ni content, the Charpy impact toughness improved remarkably, and transformed from cleavage brittle fracture to the most ductile fracture. There were no obvious differences between the high- and low-Ni contents on the microstructure and mechanical properties since the addition of Ni did not influence crystal structure, phase composition, and precipitation of ultra pure ferritic stainless steels. Meanwhile, the heat-treatment process was a key point to maintain a high level of toughness by optimizing structure and removing detrimental precipitation, i.e., chi phase.     

Oxidation limited life times of chromia forming ferritic steels

Long term, cyclic oxidation studies of three high – Cr, ferritic steels were carried out at 800°C and 900°C in air. It was found that with decreasing sample thickness the life time of the mentioned alloys decreases due to breakaway phenomena. This effect is caused by faster exhaustion of the chromium reservoir from the bulk alloy in case of thinner components. The observed life time limits can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by a theoretical model, using oxide growth rate parameters, initial alloy Cr content and critical Cr content required for protective chromia scale formation. In the calculation it has, however, to be taken into account that the oxidation rates of the steels increase with decreasing specimen thickness.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Nb- and Nb+ Ti-Stabilised 18Cr-2Mo Ferritic Stainless Steels

To explore the optimum use of stabilised elements and study the influences of stabilisation in 18 Cr-2 Mo grades,the Nb and Nb+Ti microalloying investigation focused on the relationships of the microstructure and mechanical properties of the microalloyed 18 Cr-2 Mo ferritic stainless steel thick plates.Thermo-Calc calculation was performed to predict the equilibrium phase diagrams.Afterwards,the microstructure,i.e.grain size and precipitation,of as-annealed specimens was analysed by means of optical microscopy,scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy,X-ray diffraction and energydispersive spectroscopy.Also,electron backscatter diffraction mapping was constructed to characterise grain boundary.The mechanical properties,including tensile strength and impact toughness,were tested to correlate with the microstructure.The results show that the grain sizes of Nb-stabilised steel are comparatively smaller,which is related to the fine precipitation at the grain boundaries and beneficial to the impact toughness.The increase in its strength is not apparent due to the inhomogeneous grain sizes.The grain boundary characters are similar,which is not the main factor related to their mechanical properties.When Ti is added,TiN forms above the liquidus,and large TiN particles evidently impair impact toughness.     

电化学充氢对Cr15铁素体不锈钢和304奥氏体不锈钢氢脆敏感性的影响

研究了充氢时间、充氢电流密度、晶体结构对不锈钢氢脆敏感性的影响。结果表明:对于铁素体不锈钢,随着充氢时间的延长、电流密度的增大,塑性显著降低,氢脆敏感性大幅度增加;通过SEM观察实验钢断口形貌,断裂类型由韧性断裂转变为脆性断裂。而相同条件下,奥氏体不锈钢氢脆敏感性较低,抗氢脆性能较好。充氢后实验钢表面存在大量H,且氢含量随试样深度逐渐降低,晶界可能作为氢陷阱影响实验钢的氢脆敏感性。     

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 研究了大气环境下AISI430铁素体不锈钢在950~1 050 ℃的高温氧化行为,采用热分析仪进行了恒温氧化试验,利用扫描电镜和能谱仪观察分析了氧化表面形貌和组成。结果表明：950 ℃下氧化比较缓慢,氧化增重较小,氧化表面致密平整;1 000 ℃以上氧化迅速,氧化增重显著增大,表面有大量的氧化铁突起;致密氧化层由八面体的铬锰尖晶石颗粒和近球形的氧化铬颗粒组成。     

稀土对超级铁素体不锈钢组织和性能的影响

通过光学金相显微镜、金相定量图像分析仪、透射电子显微镜、室温冲击和动电位极化等分析测试手段,研究不同稀土含量的超级铁素体不锈钢的晶粒特征、930℃退火时析出相、冲击韧性和耐腐蚀性。研究表明：适量的稀土可有效细化晶粒,使晶粒度从6.9级提高至8.6级;添加稀土后,退火时析出相所占面积百分数明显降低,且未见以链状形式出现;稀土提高了C、N的固溶度,使碳氮化物析出减少;稀土含量为0.106%时,冲击功为45.25 J,较未添加稀土时提高了2倍;同时,稀土促使断裂机制由脆性断裂向韧性断裂转变。稀土可有效增强超级铁素体不锈钢的耐点蚀性能。稀土含量为0.106%时,腐蚀速率最小。钢中S含量降低且夹杂物得到改善是稀土提高该钢种耐点蚀性主要原因。     

Study by Means of the Mass Spectrometry of Volatile Species in the Oxidation of Cr, Cr2O3, Al, Al2O3, Si, SiO2, Fe and Ferritic/Martensitic Steel Samples at 923 K in Ar+(10 to 80%)H2O Vapor Atmosphere for New-Materials Design

Mass spectrometry was used to study in-situ the role of volatile species in the oxidation of reference materials Cr, Cr₂O₃, Al, Al₂O₃, Si, SiO₂, Fe and ferritic/martensitic steels (P91 and P92) at high temperatures. All samples were heated to 650°C at 1 atm in a mixture of Ar with 10–80% range H₂O vapor. Oxidation times varied between 100 and 200 h. Cr(g), CrH(g), CrO(g), CrOH(g), CrO₂(g), CrOOH(g) and Cr(OH)₂(g) chromium-oxy-hydroxides species were identified during the corrosion of Cr oxidized in a steam atmosphere of Ar+80%H₂O for 100 h. CrO(g), CrO₃(g) and Cr(OH)₆(g) species were present in mass loss of a Cr₂O₃ sample in similar conditions for 200 h of oxidation. However a mass gain was observed when Cr₂O₂(g) and CrO(OH)₄(g) species were present. Simultaneously, thermogravimetric studies of the oxidation kinetics of the samples were made with one in-situ thermobalance. The P91 and P92 steels were studied with afore-mentioned techniques at the beginning of breakaway oxidation. During 100 h of oxidation at 650°C in Ar+10%H₂O atmosphere: Cr(OH)₆(g), CrOOH(g) and CrO₂(OH)₂(g) chromium oxy-hydroxides volatile species were detected in the P91 steel, and Cr(OH)₂(g), Cr(OH)₃(g), Cr(OH)₄(g), CrO(OH)₂(g) and CrO(OH)₄(g), species in the P92 steel. The morphology/composition and structure of the oxidized steel samples were also characterized using SEM/EDAX and XRD techniques, respectively.     

Non-isothermal Dissolution Modelling of Sigma Phase in Duplex Stainless Steels

In this work,the non-isothermal dissolution kinetics of the sigma phase in duplex stainless steels has been studied and modelled.A semi-empirical model is proposed to describe the kinetics of sigma phase precipitation/dissolution during continuous heating starting from the isothermal transformation kinetics.The proposed model,which presumes validity of the additivity rule,is validated by means of experimental investigations.A good agreement is found between experimental and analytical results.     

The Influence of the Rare Earth Element Ce on the High-Temperature Oxidation Kinetics of Low-Cr Steels

The oxidation behavior of steels containing low-Cr concentrations (0.5-2.25 wt.%) has been studied in laboratory air in the temperature range of 400-550 °C. The oxidation rate of the steels was lower than that of pure iron, but higher than that of pure iron when a small amount of rare earth element cerium (0.03 wt.%) is added to the 2.25Cr1Mo steel. The mass change follows a nearly parabolic law for the case of pure iron and the steel without Ce addition, while linear behavior describes the oxygen uptake for the case of the 2.25Cr1Mo+0.03Ce steel. SEM cross-section observations and thermodynamic calculations confirm that there is no wustite (FeO) formation during oxidation of pure iron and low-Cr steels at 550 °C, whereas FeO might be formed in the oxide scale of 2.25Cr1Mo+0.03Ce at the same oxidation conditions (temperature, atmosphere, and exposure time). By investigating the temperature for FeO stability, this study reveals that the temperature for FeO formation on pure iron is 568 °C, for the 2.25Cr1Mo steel 589 °C, and 471 °C for the 2.25Cr1Mo+0.03Ce. This low value for the FeO stability temperature found for the steel 2.25Cr1Mo+0.03Ce steel explains why this steel oxidizes very fast at 550 °C.     

Oxidation Mechanism of Steels in Liquid–Lead Alloys

The oxidation mechanism of steels in liquid–lead alloys (lead or lead–bismuth) was studied. Parametric dependencies of oxidation, including oxygen-concentration effects, oxidation-rate constant and corrosion-rate effects, are analyzed. An oxidation model is developed based on the assumptions that the chemical reactions are at equilibrium locally, and scale removal is due to mass-transfer corrosion. The model shows that outward-iron diffusion in the solid phase (oxide layer) controls the oxide growth and mass-transfer rate in the flowing-boundary layer determines the corrosion-product transport in the liquid phase (liquid–lead alloy). The oxide thickness depends on both the parabolic oxide-growth-rate constant and the mass-transfer-corrosion rate. For long-term operation, the outer layer of a duplex-oxide layer can be completely removed by flowing lead alloys and it is expected that a pure-chromium-oxide layer forms underneath the Fe–Cr spinel if iron is heavily depleted. The oxide thickness and steel weight change are very different from those of the pure parabolic law and they are classified into distinct and universal categories. The model is validated partially by application to interpreting the measured oxide behavior of several steels in a lead-bismuth eutectic-test loop.     

Effect of Chromium Content on the Oxidation Behaviour of Ferritic Steels for Applications in Steam Atmospheres at High Temperatures

Environments containing water vapour are common in many industrial processes, such as power generation systems. Hence, long-term oxidation (1000 h) of P-91 and AISI 430 was studied at 650 and 800 °C, in 100% H₂O atmosphere. The oxidation resistance of the AISI 430 is better than that of the P-91, due to the formation of protective phases on the surface. At 650 °C, a scale composed of Fe₃O₄, Fe₂O₃ and (Fe,Cr)₃O₄ is formed on P-91, although at 800 °C the scale is mainly composed of Fe₃O₄ and (Fe,Cr)₃O₄. On the other hand, on AISI 430 the scale is composed mainly of (Fe,Cr)₂O₃ at 650 °C, and at 800 °C a layer of Cr₂O₃ is formed and remains owing to the higher diffusion rate of Cr at this temperature than at 650 °C, the latter of which compensates the Cr depletion by the degradation of the chromia scale.     

The Role of Silicon in the Reactive-Elements Effect on the Oxidation of Conventional Austenitic Stainless Steel

In this work we evaluate the influence of silicon on the high-temperature oxidation of austenitic stainless steels and propose a mechanism that explains the Reactive-Element Effect (REE) in terms of a synergistic action between the reactive element and the silica layer that forms in the innermost areas of the scale. To do this we have studied the oxidation at 900°C of austenitic commercial alloys (AISI-304, AISI-316 and AISI-310S) and a laboratory-designed high-silicon stainless steel (AISI-304). Lanthanum was selected as the reactive element which was surface deposited by means of ion interchange. Results obtained in this work allowed us to state that the reactive element would enhance the formation of a silica layer that shows diffusion through the scale. The reactive element also changes the expansion coefficient at the scale-alloy interface, increasing the adherence of the oxide layer to the metal.     

Oxidation Behaviors of Different Grades of Ferritic Heat Resistant Steels in High-Temperature Steam and Flue Gas Environments

For steam tubes used in thermal power plant, the inner and outer walls were operated in high-temperature steam and flue gas environments respectively. In this study, structure, microstructure and chemical composition of oxide films on inner and outer walls of ex-service low Cr ferritic steel G102 tube and ex-service high Cr ferritic steel T91 tube were analyzed. The oxide film was composed of outer oxide layer, inner oxide layer and internal oxidation zone. The outer oxide layer on the original surface of tube had a porous structure containing Fe oxides formed by diffusion and oxidation of Fe. More specially, the outer oxide layer formed in flue gas environment would mix with coal combustion products during the growth process. The inner oxide layer below the original surface of tube was made of Fe-Cr spinel. The internal oxidation zone was believed to be the precursor stage of inner oxide layer. The formation of internal oxidation zone was due to O diffusing along grain boundaries to form oxide. There were Fe-Cr-Si oxides discontinuously distributed along grain boundaries in the internal oxidation zone of G102, while there were Fe-Cr oxides continuously distributed along grain boundaries in that of T91.     

430不锈钢热轧板夹杂物分析

利用光学显微镜和扫描电镜能谱分析对430铁素体不锈钢头坯、尾坯、混浇坯和正常坯对应热轧板中全氧、夹杂物的类型和面积百分比作综合检测和分析。结果表明： 430不锈钢热轧板中夹杂物主要为CaO-SiO2-MgO硅酸盐夹杂和Al2O3-MgO-CaO系球状氧化物夹杂;头坯、尾坯和混浇坯对应的热轧板中全氧质量分数分别为41×10-6、39×10-6和37×10-6,高于正常坯对应热轧板中的28×10-6;夹杂物的面积百分比分别为0.031%、0.028%和0.039%,也高于正常坯对应热轧板中的0.02%。     

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 本文通过金相和EBSD等技术,观察了不同热轧终轧温度对00Cr21Mo1铁素体不锈钢热轧态、热轧退火态、冷轧退火态织构的变化的影响情况,并分析讨论了较高终轧温度下铁素体不锈钢00Cr21Mo1塑性应变比（Rm）较低的原因。结果表明,较低的终轧温度下,00Cr21Mo1热轧态组织形变带宽度较小,受轧辊切应变而形成的{110}<001>、{110}<112>、{4 4 11}<11 11 8>织构组分强度较小,且均匀、分散,最终冷轧退火态以{111}面织构为主,塑性应变比较高。