Methodological characteristics of the national dietary surveys carried out in the European Union as included in the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database

In 2009 competent organisations in the European Union provided the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) with data from the most recent national dietary survey at the level of individuals’ consumption. Twenty different Member States provided EFSA with data from 22 different national dietary surveys, with consumption figures for adults and, when available, for children. Member States’ dietary data were assembled into the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. In this paper an overview of the methodologies and protocols employed in the different national dietary surveys is provided. Specifically, details about dietary assessment methods, interview administration, sampling design, portion size estimation, dietary software, evaluation of under-reporting and non-dietary information collected are described. This information is crucial to evaluate the level of accuracy of food consumption data and to anticipate and acknowledge the utmost important sources of heterogeneity of national databases included in the Comprehensive Database. The Comprehensive Database constitutes a unique resource for the estimation of consumption figures across the European Union and represents a useful tool to assess dietary exposure to hazardous substances and nutrient intake in Europe. Nevertheless, the many substantial methodological differences that characterise the Comprehensive Database are acknowledged and critically discussed.     

Statistical method to assess usual dietary intakes in the European population

Food consumption data are a key element of EFSA’s risk assessment activities, forming the basis of dietary exposure assessment at the European level. In 2011, EFSA released the Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database, gathering consumption data from 34 national surveys representing 66,492 individuals from 22 European Union member states. Due to the different methodologies used, national survey data cannot be combined to generate European estimates of dietary exposure. This study was executed to assess how existing consumption data and the representativeness of dietary exposure and risk estimates at the European Union level can be improved by developing a ‘Compiled European Food Consumption Database’. To create the database, the usual intake distributions of 589 food items representing the total diet were estimated for 36 clusters composed of subjects belonging to the same age class, gender and having a similar diet. An adapted form of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) method was used for this, with a number of important modifications. Season, body weight and whether or not the food was consumed at the weekend were used to predict the probability of consumption. A gamma distribution was found to be more suitable for modelling the distribution of food amounts in the different food groups instead of a normal distribution. These distributions were combined with food correlation matrices according to the Iman–Conover method in order to simulate 28 days of consumption for 40,000 simulated individuals. The simulated data were validated by comparing the consumption statistics of the simulated individuals and food groups with the same statistics estimated from the Comprehensive Database. The opportunities and limitations of using the simulated database for exposure assessments are described.     

High Exposure from Summary Statistics (HESS): application to the EFSA comprehensive European food consumption database

While intake and exposure assessments can be readily carried out for a number of countries using complete datasets, the majority of European intake data are only available in the form of summary statistics published by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Only EFSA have access to the complete datasets which are used in scientific opinions it issues. The proposed High Exposure from Summary Statistics (HESS) method is derived from first principles, and compared to existing models used to estimate high consumer exposures from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. The method is applied to recent US consumption data to test its usefulness for deterministic and probabilistic exposure models, where comparisons between model results and detailed exposure assessments are possible. HESS is shown to provide a modest overestimation of the actual high consumer exposure, with a level of consistency and predictability that is much better than existing methods used with the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database.     

Comprehensive European dietary exposure model (CEDEM) for food additives

European methods for assessing dietary exposures to nutrients, additives and other substances in food are limited by the availability of detailed food consumption data for all member states. A proposed comprehensive European dietary exposure model (CEDEM) applies summary data published by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in a deterministic model based on an algorithm from the EFSA intake method for food additives. The proposed approach can predict estimates of food additive exposure provided in previous EFSA scientific opinions that were based on the full European food consumption database.     

Food and feed chemical contaminants in the European Union: Regulatory,scientific, and technical issues concerning chemical contaminants occurrence,risk assessment,and risk management in the European Union

A priority of the European Union is the control of risks possibly associated with chemical contaminants in food and undesirable substances in feed. Following an initial chapter describing the main contaminants detected in food and undesirable substances in feed in the EU, their main sources and the factors which affect their occurrence, the present review focuses on the “continous call for data” procedure that is a very effective system in place at EFSA to make possible the exposure assessment of specific contaminants and undesirable substances. Risk assessment of contaminants in food atances in feed is carried currently in the European Union by the CONTAM Panel of EFSA according to well defined methodologies and in collaboration with competent international organizations and with Member States.     

A harmonised approach for identifying core foods for total diet studies

Total diet studies (TDS) are used to gather information on chemical substances in food, thereby facilitating risk assessments and health monitoring. Candidate foods for inclusion in a TDS should represent a large part of a typical diet to estimate accurately the exposure of a population and/or specific population groups. There are currently no harmonised guidelines for the selection of foods in a TDS, and so the aim of this study was to explore the possibility of generating a harmonised approach to be used across Europe. Summary statistics data from the European Food Safety Authority’s (EFSA) Comprehensive Food Consumption Database were used in this research, which provided data from national food consumption surveys in Europe. The chosen methodology for the selection of foods was based on the weight of food consumed and consumer rate. Using the available data, 59 TDS food lists were created, representing over 51 000 people across 17 countries and seven population groups. All TDS food lists represented > 85% of the populations’ diets (85.9–96.3%), while the number of foods in the TDS food lists ranged from 15 to 102. Comparison of the TDS food lists indicated that the most commonly consumed foods included wheat bread and rolls, pastries and cakes, tomatoes, apples, bananas, and chicken, while cow’s milk, tap water and orange juice were the most commonly consumed beverages across Europe. This work was complete to support EFSA and other institutions in the development of harmonised TDS into the future.     

Impact of refining the assessment of dietary exposure to cadmium in the European adult population

Exposure assessment constitutes an important step in any risk assessment of potentially harmful substances present in food. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) first assessed dietary exposure to cadmium in Europe using a deterministic framework, resulting in mean values of exposure in the range of health-based guidance values. Since then, the characterisation of foods has been refined to better match occurrence and consumption data, and a new strategy to handle left-censoring in occurrence data was devised. A probabilistic assessment was performed and compared with deterministic estimates, using occurrence values at the European level and consumption data from 14 national dietary surveys. Mean estimates in the probabilistic assessment ranged from 1.38 (95% CI = 1.35–1.44) to 2.08 (1.99–2.23) µg kg^–1 bodyweight (bw) week^–1 across the different surveys, which were less than 10% lower than deterministic (middle bound) mean values that ranged from 1.50 to 2.20 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1. Probabilistic 95th percentile estimates of dietary exposure ranged from 2.65 (2.57–2.72) to 4.99 (4.62–5.38) µg kg^–1 bw week^–1, which were, with the exception of one survey, between 3% and 17% higher than middle-bound deterministic estimates. Overall, the proportion of subjects exceeding the tolerable weekly intake of 2.5 µg kg^–1 bw ranged from 14.8% (13.6–16.0%) to 31.2% (29.7–32.5%) according to the probabilistic assessment. The results of this work indicate that mean values of dietary exposure to cadmium in the European population were of similar magnitude using determinist or probabilistic assessments. For higher exposure levels, probabilistic estimates were almost consistently larger than deterministic counterparts, thus reflecting the impact of using the full distribution of occurrence values to determine exposure levels. It is considered prudent to use probabilistic methodology should exposure estimates be close to or exceeding health-based guidance values.     

European Food Poisoning Outbreaks Involving Meat and Meat-based Products

Foodborne illnesses are syndromes including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and diarrhea caused by the ingestion of food contaminated by chemical substances or microorganisms and/or their toxins. Reporting of food poisoning has been mandatory for European Union member states since 2003. Data collected by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) include number of outbreaks per causative agent, number of human cases as well as hospitalization and death rates. This paper will focus on meat products as food vehicles for FBOs. Following the legal definition of meat and meat products and the European reporting scheme, the main pathogenic bacteria will be presented.     

Risk assessment of biological hazards in the European Union

International, community and national food safety law and any subsequent decision-making practices aim to be based on risk analysis--a process consisting of risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. With the appointment of the European Food Safety Authority as an independent scientific point of reference in risk assessment, there is a clear functional separation between risk assessment and risk management in the European Union food safety context. When a food safety question on microbiological hazards is to be answered--which is under the remit of the EFSA's Scientific Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ)--extensive dialogue and interactions covering the clarity of the question, the acceptability of the deadline and the availability of all necessary information take place with both the risk managers who ask the question and the stakeholders. During the first mandate of the BIOHAZ Panel (2003-2006), the scientific opinions were mainly based on qualitative and in some cases semi-quantitative microbiological risk assessment. In the second mandate of the BIOHAZ Panel, and as a first step towards developing a European approach on Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessment (QMRA), EFSA is preparing to carry out a QMRA on Salmonella in pigs, at European level through a consortium of European institutes.     

An assessment of the acute dietary exposure to glyphosate using deterministic and probabilistic methods

Use of glyphosate in crop production can lead to residues of the active substance and related metabolites in food. Glyphosate has never been considered acutely toxic; however, in 2015 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) proposed an acute reference dose (ARfD). This differs from the Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) who in 2016, in line with their existing position, concluded that an ARfD was not necessary for glyphosate. This paper makes a comprehensive assessment of short-term dietary exposure to glyphosate from potentially treated crops grown in the EU and imported third-country food sources. European Union and global deterministic models were used to make estimates of short-term dietary exposure (generally defined as up to 24 h). Estimates were refined using food-processing information, residues monitoring data, national dietary exposure models, and basic probabilistic approaches to estimating dietary exposure. Calculated exposures levels were compared to the ARfD, considered to be the amount of a substance that can be consumed in a single meal, or 24-h period, without appreciable health risk. Acute dietary intakes were <100% of the ARfD for all foodstuffs, except wild fungi, when calculated using the EFSA model. The model assumptions differ from those of the source model (German national model), resulting in the use of a higher variability factor. Intakes estimated with the German model represented only 18% of the ARfD. The impact of differing assumptions regarding variability and other input parameters is discussed. Probabilistic exposure estimates showed that the acute intake on no person-days exceeded 10% of the ARfD, even for the pessimistic scenario.     

Long-term dietary exposure to lead in young European children: comparing a pan-European approach with a national exposure assessment

Long-term dietary exposures to lead in young children were calculated by combining food consumption data of 11 European countries categorised using harmonised broad food categories with occurrence data on lead from different Member States (pan-European approach). The results of the assessment in children living in the Netherlands were compared with a long-term lead intake assessment in the same group using Dutch lead concentration data and linking the consumption and concentration data at the highest possible level of detail. Exposures obtained with the pan-European approach were higher than the national exposure calculations. For both assessments cereals contributed most to the exposure. The lower dietary exposure in the national study was due to the use of lower lead concentrations and a more optimal linkage of food consumption and concentration data. When a pan-European approach, using a harmonised food categorisation system and “European” concentration data, results in a possible health risk related to the intake of an environmental chemical for a certain country, it is advisable to refine this assessment, as part of a tiered approach, using national occurrence data, including an optimised linkage between foods analysed and consumed for that country. In the case of lack of occurrence data, these data can be supplemented with data from the “European” concentration database or by generating additional concentration data at country level.     

Dietary cadmium intake by the Belgian adult population

The aim of this study was to estimate the dietary cadmium (Cd) intake of the Belgian adult population, to compare this dietary Cd exposure to the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) recently established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and to determine the major food groups that contribute to dietary Cd exposure in Belgium. Food consumption data were derived from the 2004 Belgian food consumption survey (two 24 h recalls, 3083 participants). Cadmium concentrations in food items (n = 4000) were gathered from the control program of the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain for the period 2006-2008. Dietary intake per individual was calculated from consumption data and median Cd concentrations. The population mean, median and 95th percentile of the dietary intake values were 0.98, 0.85 and 2.02 μg kg?1 body weight per week respectively. Two percent of the Belgian adult population has a dietary Cd intake above the recent TWI of 2.5 μg kg?1 body weight established by EFSA in 2009. Cereal products and potatoes contribute for more than 60% to Cd intake.     

Dietary cadmium intake by the Belgian adult population

The aim of this study was to estimate the dietary cadmium (Cd) intake of the Belgian adult population, to compare this dietary Cd exposure to the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) recently established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and to determine the major food groups that contribute to dietary Cd exposure in Belgium. Food consumption data were derived from the 2004 Belgian food consumption survey (two 24?h recalls, 3083 participants). Cadmium concentrations in food items (n?=?4000) were gathered from the control program of the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain for the period 2006–2008. Dietary intake per individual was calculated from consumption data and median Cd concentrations. The population mean, median and 95th percentile of the dietary intake values were 0.98, 0.85 and 2.02?µg?kg^?1 body weight per week respectively. Two percent of the Belgian adult population has a dietary Cd intake above the recent TWI of 2.5?µg?kg^?1 body weight established by EFSA in 2009. Cereal products and potatoes contribute for more than 60% to Cd intake.     

Principles for the risk assessment of genetically modified microorganisms and their food products in the European Union

Genetically modified microorganisms (GMMs) are involved in the production of a variety of food and feed. The release and consumption of these products can raise questions about health and environmental safety. Therefore, the European Union has different legislative instruments in place in order to ensure the safety of such products. A key requirement is to conduct a scientific risk assessment as a prerequisite for the product to be placed on the market. This risk assessment is performed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), through its Scientific Panels. The EFSA Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms has published complete and comprehensive guidance for the risk assessment of GMMs and their products for food and/or feed use, in which the strategy and the criteria to conduct the assessment are explained, as well as the scientific data to be provided in applications for regulated products. This Guidance follows the main risk assessment principles developed by various international organisations ( and ). The assessment considers two aspects: the characterisation of the GMM and the possible effects of its modification with respect to safety, and the safety of the product itself. Due to the existing diversity of GMMs and their products, a categorisation is recommended to optimise the assessment and to determine the extent of the required data. The assessment starts with a comprehensive characterisation of the GMM, covering the recipient/parental organism, the donor(s) of the genetic material, the genetic modification, and the final GMM and its phenotype. Evaluation of the composition, potential toxicity and/or allergenicity, nutritional value and environmental impact of the product constitute further cornerstones of the process. The outcome of the assessment is reflected in a scientific opinion which indicates whether the product raises any safety issues. This opinion is taken into account by the different European regulatory authorities prior to a decision regarding authorisation to commercialise the product.     

2019年欧盟食品饲料快速预警系统通报中国输欧食品情况与风险分析

欧盟食品和饲料快速预警系统(Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed, RASFF),作为欧盟食品安全管理体系最重要的部分,为欧盟委员会以及各成员国能够及时排查出食品安全风险并及时应对提供了强有力的支撑,有效保证了欧盟各成员国食品安全。本文对2019年欧盟RASFF通报我输欧食品情况进行收集、梳理和分析,以期减少或避免类似情况发生,以期为我国出口食品企业和监管部门提供参考。     

Effects of refining predicted chronic dietary intakes of pesticide residues: a case study using glyphosate

A chronic consumer risk assessment based on a worst-case scenario, conducted as part of the European Union review leading to Annex I inclusion for glyphosate, was evaluated and refined. An extensive database of information on the effects of processing on the levels of glyphosate residues in food is available. This database together with refined consumption data from the UK's surveys of adults and toddlers and extensive monitoring data of glyphosate residues in mainly cereal products conducted in the UK were combined to examine the potential overestimates of dietary intakes that are predicted using the current regulatory methodology developed by the Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization and applied as part of the European Union regulatory process. Analysis focussed on the chronic exposure from treated cereals, the crop group contributing significantly to the dietary intake of glyphosate residues. A steep reduction of predicted intake was seen when progressively realistic measures of residues were incorporated into the models, giving a strong indication of the conservative nature of current regulatory procedures. Calculations using even the most unrefined methodology gave rise to intakes of up to 11% of the acceptable daily intake; this was reduced to 0.6% of the acceptable daily intake when justifiable refinements based on extensive monitoring data collected in the UK were made. Consumption data for processed foods abstracted from the UK Food Standard Agency's database were used to refine further the predicted dietary intakes as a result of residue reductions or concentration from processing. The current regulatory model used in the UK generally only has the potential to use a single value for consumption of a particular food. The Pesticides Safety Directorate model consistently predicted the highest intakes with the exception of intakes by adults using the supervised trials median residue and median monitoring data. This suggests that conservatism in the regulatory model exists particularly where specific processing factors cannot be applied to individual fractions of the diet.     

Harmonisation of food categorisation systems for dietary exposure assessments among European children

Within the European project called EXPOCHI (Individual Food Consumption Data and Exposure Assessment Studies for Children), 14 different European individual food consumption databases of children were used to conduct harmonised dietary exposure assessments for lead, chromium, selenium and food colours. For this, two food categorisation systems were developed to classify the food consumption data in such a way that these could be linked to occurrence data of the considered compounds. One system served for the exposure calculations of lead, chromium and selenium. The second system was developed for the exposure assessment of food colours. The food categories defined for the lead, chromium and selenium exposure calculations were used as a basis for the food colour categorisation, with adaptations to optimise the linkage with the food colour occurrence data. With this work, an initial impetus was given to make user-friendly food categorisation systems for contaminants and food colours applicable on a pan-European level. However, a set of difficulties were encountered in creating a common food categorisation system for 14 individual food consumption databases that differ in the type and number of foods coded and in level of detail provided about the consumed foods. The work done and the problems encountered in this project can be of interest for future projects in which food consumption data will be collected on a pan-European level and used for common exposure assessments.     

Harmonisation of food categorisation systems for dietary exposure assessments among European children

Within the European project called EXPOCHI (Individual Food Consumption Data and Exposure Assessment Studies for Children), 14 different European individual food consumption databases of children were used to conduct harmonised dietary exposure assessments for lead, chromium, selenium and food colours. For this, two food categorisation systems were developed to classify the food consumption data in such a way that these could be linked to occurrence data of the considered compounds. One system served for the exposure calculations of lead, chromium and selenium. The second system was developed for the exposure assessment of food colours. The food categories defined for the lead, chromium and selenium exposure calculations were used as a basis for the food colour categorisation, with adaptations to optimise the linkage with the food colour occurrence data. With this work, an initial impetus was given to make user-friendly food categorisation systems for contaminants and food colours applicable on a pan-European level. However, a set of difficulties were encountered in creating a common food categorisation system for 14 individual food consumption databases that differ in the type and number of foods coded and in level of detail provided about the consumed foods. The work done and the problems encountered in this project can be of interest for future projects in which food consumption data will be collected on a pan-European level and used for common exposure assessments.