Hypocholesterolaemic and antioxidant activities of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) protein hydrolysates

BACKGROUND: Some dietary proteins possess biological properties which make them potential ingredients of functional or health‐promoting foods. Many of these properties are attributed to bioactive peptides that can be released by controlled hydrolysis using exogenous proteases. The aim of this work was to test the improvement of hypocholesterolaemic and antioxidant activities of chickpea protein isolate by means of hydrolysis with alcalase and flavourzyme. RESULTS: All hydrolysates tested exhibited better hypocholesterolaemic activity when compared with chickpea protein isolate. The highest cholesterol micellar solubility inhibition (50%) was found after 60 min of treatment with alcalase followed by 30 min of hydrolysis with flavourzyme. To test antioxidant activity of chickpea proteins three methods were used: β‐carotene bleaching method, reducing power and 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical‐scavenging effect since antioxidant activity of protein hydrolysates may not be attributed to a single mechanism. Chickpea hydrolysates showed better antioxidant activity in all assays, especially reducing power and DPPH scavenging effect than chickpea protein isolate. CONCLUSION: The results of this study showed the good potential of chickpea protein hydrolysates as bioactive ingredients. The highest bioactive properties could be obtained by selecting the type of proteases and the hydrolysis time. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Composition and properties of starches from Virginia‐grown kabuli chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars

Composition and properties of seeds and starches from five Virginia‐grown kabuli chickpea cultivars were investigated. The seeds had the average weight of 4.48 g per 10 g and volume of 641.2 mm³, and were rich in carbohydrate with starch as a principal constituent (59.2–70.9%). Resistant starch accounted for 7.7–10.4% of the total starch content. The composition and properties of the starches among the five cultivars were significantly different (P ≤ 0.05). All starches had a C‐type crystalline structure. The degree of crystallinity ranged from 21.1% to 27.4%, gelatinisation temperature from 7.97 to 11.2 °C and gelatinisation enthalpies from 2.18 to 3.76 J g^?1, and water absorption capacities from 90.7% to 117.5%. Different shapes and granule sizes were observed. Molecular weight of amylopectin was in the range of 6.35 × 10⁸–11.6 × 10⁸ Da. Cultivar ‘HB‐14’ was superior to the other cultivars, when combining larger seed size, higher resistant starch level and better properties.     

Effects of processing and cooking on ascorbic acid content of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) varieties

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) is an important source of protein in several developing countries. Two commonly grown chickpea cultivars, HPG‐17 and C‐235, were evaluated for their physicochemical characteristics such as 100‐seed weight and density. Both chickpea varieties were subjected to various processing treatments and then analysed for their ascorbic acid content. The ascorbic acid content was generally found to be higher in the C‐235 variety, but it was higher in the HPG‐17 variety after germination. Significant results were obtained for both varieties after various treatments such as pressure cooking, germination, parching and solar cooking. It was found that the ascorbic acid content in both varieties decreased after all treatments except germination. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Microwave‐assisted extraction of bioactive saponins from chickpea (Cicer arietinum L)

Growing interest in plant secondary metabolites has brought with it the need for economical, rapid and efficient extraction protocols. Microwave‐assisted extraction (MAE) was used to extract saponins from chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Several MAE conditions were tested, and the method proved to be superior to Soxhlet extraction with regard to amounts of solvents required, time and energy expended. The use of a butanol/H₂O mixture showed selectivity towards saponin extraction. Using TLC, two distinct saponins were observed in the various chickpea extracts. The identification of the major saponin as a DDMP‐conjugated saponin was verified using ¹H and ¹³C NMR, for the first time in chickpea. The MAE procedure most likely contributed to the conservation of the heat‐sensitive DDMP moiety. The pure chickpea saponin exhibited significant inhibitory activity against Penicillium digitatum and additional filamentous fungi. Two Fusarium strains tested were highly tolerant to the saponin. The potential for using MAE for the efficient extraction of natural products may assist in expediting the chemical analysis and characterization of the biological activities of such compounds. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Physicochemical, thermal and functional characterisation of protein isolates from Kabuli and Desi chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): a comparative study with soy (Glycine max) and pea (Pisum sativum L.)

BACKGROUND: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seeds are a good source of protein that has potential applications in new product formulation and fortification. The main objectives of this study were to analyse the physicochemical, thermal and functional properties of chickpea protein isolates (CPIs) and compare them with those of soy (SPI) and pea (PPI) protein isolates. RESULTS: Extracted CPIs had mean protein contents of 728–853 g kg^?1 (dry weight basis). Analysis of their deconvoluted Fourier transform infrared spectra gave secondary structure estimates of 25.6–32.7% α‐helices, 32.5–40.4% β‐sheets, 13.8–18.9% turns and 16.3–19.2% disordered structures. CPIs from CDC Xena, among Kabuli varieties, and Myles, among Desi varieties, as well as SPI had the highest water‐holding and oil absorption capacities. The emulsifying properties of Kabuli CPIs were superior to those of PPI and Desi CPIs and as good as those of SPI. The heat‐induced gelation properties of CPIs showed a minimum protein concentration required to form a gel structure ranging from 100 to 140 g L^?1. Denaturation temperatures and enthalpies of CPIs ranged from 89.0 to 92.0 °C and from 2.4 to 4.0 J g^?1 respectively. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that most physicochemical, thermal and functional properties of CPIs compare favourably with those of SPI and are better than those of PPI. Hence CPI may be suitable as a high‐quality substitute for SPI in food applications. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Role of steaming and toasting on the odor, protein characteristics of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) flour, and product quality

Proteins play an important role in imparting functional attributes like texture and shape, which determine the sensory quality of the foods. Boondi, a deep fried product from chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) flour dispersion, is a popular snack food in India. Chickpea dhal (splits) or flour was subjected to various processing conditions like steaming and toasting, to determine their effect on the chickpea flour protein characteristics and on the product quality. Dhal and flour subjected to different heat treatments showed differences in their odor profiles. The SDS-PAGE of sodium phosphate buffer extracts of steamed dhal or flour showed that the high molecular weight (HMW) proteins of 66 to 100 kDa that were present in the untreated dhal were found to be absent in steamed dhal extracts. However, SDS buffer extracts on SDS-PAGE of these steamed samples did not show any difference between untreated and thermally treated dhal samples. Phosphate buffer extracts of the thermally treated flours were subjected to gel filtration chromatography and the results indicated that the HMW protein fraction content decreased significantly in the treated dhal or flour samples compared to control. Boondi prepared from the thermally treated dhal samples resulted in the loss of spherical shape of boondi. Thus, the results indicate that thermal treatment of chickpea dhal and flour influence changes in protein characteristics, the sensory profile and quality of boondi.     

Biochemistry and technology of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seeds

Chickpea is an important source of proteins, carbohydrates, B-group vitamins, and certain minerals, particularly to the populations of developing nations. India contributes over 75% of the chickpea production in the world where it is mostly consumed as dhal, whole seeds, and several types of traditional, fermented, deep fried, sweetened, and puffed products. In this review, the world production and distribution, genetic background, biochemical and nutritional quality, and developments in storage and processing technology of chickpea are discussed. Future research needs, to improve the utilization of chickpea as human food, are addressed.     

Milling performance in desi‐type chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): effects of genotype,environment and seed size

BACKGROUND: Commercial experience suggests that desi chickpea cultivars vary in their milling quality. However, the relative effects of cultivar, growing environment and their interaction are unknown. This study examined the Australian pulse quality method for its effectiveness in comparing the milling quality of breeding lines. The main aims were (1) to determine if there were significant genotypic differences, (2) to quantify the effects of trial, testa content and seed size and (3) to determine if any of the milling quality or seed parameters were correlated. This information would then be used to improve the reliability and efficiency of testing breeding lines. RESULTS: Large genotypic differences were observed for the milling parameters dehulling efficiency (DE) and splitting yield (SY). The range was greater for SY (16.6%) than for DE (5.8%). Genotype × Trial interactions were significant for DE and SY, while genotype rankings were generally consistent between trials. Seed size and testa content were not significantly associated with either DE or SY. Environmental stresses that affected yield did not appear to influence milling results. CONCLUSION: The methodology used in this study was able to measure genotypic differences in milling quality. The results suggest that an efficient protocol for testing milling quality of chickpea genotypes would include analysis of at least two sites early in the breeding programme to discard very‐low‐SY genotypes, and further testing in subsequent years including at least one other site to identify high‐SY genotypes if desired. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Extrusion and iron bioavailability in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

The effect of extrusion cooking (14% moisture and 130°C processing temperature) and of home-cooking on chickpea iron bioavailability was studied by the hemoglobin regeneration method in anemic rats. The iron pool was calculated from hemoglobin concentration and animal weight, and iron bioavailability from the relationship between iron pool gain (Δ pool) and mg of ingested iron. Iron bioavailability relative to ferrous sulfate was calculated by the following equation: Y=63.989 e^−0.0458X [Y= % absorbed; X=ingested Fe (mg)] on the basis of the results of control groups. The results showed that there was no significant difference between groups (extruded and cooked) in terms of mean percentage of iron bioavailability relative to Fe₂SO₄. We conclude that chickpea is a good source of iron and extrusion cooking is a process comparable to home-cooking in terms of iron bioavailability.     

Characterisation and functional properties of proteins of some Indian chickpea (Cicer arietinum) cultivars

BACKGROUND: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) proteins have received attention during recent years owing to their higher biological values and better functional ingredients than oilseed proteins. In this study the composition, fractionation, electrophoretic behaviour and functional properties of five chickpea protein concentrates were determined. RESULTS: The chickpea proteins contained 15.9–54.8 g kg^?1 albumin, 48.9–154.1 g kg^?1 globulin, 39.2–76.5 g kg^?1 glutelin and traces of prolamin. Electrophoresis of the various fractions revealed that albumin and globulin were made up of sub‐units of different molecular weights ranging from 7 to 96 kDa. Water and oil absorption of the protein concentrates varied from 1.15 to 2.75 g g^?1 and from 2.60 to 5.65 g g^?1 respectively. Foaming capacity and foam stability of the protein concentrates were good and improved with the addition of salt (10 g L^?1 NaCl) or sugar (100 g L^?1 sucrose) at both isoelectric and neutral pH. Emulsifying capacity and emulsion stability of the protein concentrates were good and excellent respectively. CONCLUSION: Protein concentrates prepared from chickpeas have potential use in food formulations owing to their good emulsifying/foaming and water/oil‐binding capacities. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry     

Chemical composition,functional properties and microstructural characteristics of three kabuli chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) as affected by different cooking methods

Chickpea is an important food legume and is a major ingredient in many human diets. Chemical composition, physical parameters, functional properties and microstructural characteristics of three kabuli chickpea cultivars and the effects of three cooking methods were investigated. Carbohydrate and protein were two major components in all seeds. Cooking increased fibre, total carbohydrate and total and resistant starch contents, but decreased ash content. Protein and oil levels of the cooked samples either decreased or did not change significantly. Seed weight and density decreased with cooking. Hydration and swelling capacities as well as water absorption and holding capacities of cooked chickpeas were higher than raw samples, with the largest increases in the pressure‐cooked seeds. Seed weights were highly correlated with hydration (r = 0.89) and swelling (r = 0.76) rates. Emulsifying activity, emulsifying stability and foaming capacity of cooked chickpea flours decreased, while foaming stability increased. Chickpea flours had pronounced morphological changes after cooking.     

Hard‐to‐cook tendency of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) varieties

Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L) develop the hard‐to‐cook (HTC) defect during storage at high temperatures (>25 °C) and high relative humidities (RH>65%). The objective of this work was to assess the tendency of chickpea varieties to become HTC. Three samples of chickpeas (Surutato 77, Mocorito 88 and Blanco Sinaloa 92) were grown under irrigation conditions. Two hardening procedures were used: (1) storage hardening—samples were stored at 33–35 °C and 76% relative humidity for 160 days; (2) chemical hardening—materials were soaked in 0.1 M acetate buffer (pH 4.0) at 37 °C for 1–7 h. The cooking time curves generated by chemical hardening had shapes similar to those obtained by storage hardening; both procedures were equally capable of discriminating chickpea varieties based on their susceptibility to develop the HTC condition. Chemical hardening might be useful for screening new chickpea varieties; its advantage over the storage method is its rapidity. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Study of selected quality and agronomic characteristics and their interrelationship in Kabuli‐type chickpea genotypes (Cicer arietinum L.)

Impact of genotype on quality, agronomic characteristics and their interrelationship in Kabuli‐type chickpea was investigated to provide significant feedback to breeder for selection/evolution of the most suitable varieties. Seven genotypes were studied for seventeen physical, chemical and agronomic characteristics. The effect of Kabuli‐type chickpea genotype on the physicochemical parameters, cooking time and agronomic characteristics were significant. Maximum seed size and volume were recorded for CC98/99 (0.32 g and 0.26 mL seed^?1, respectively), density and swelling index for the genotype FLIP97‐179C (having minimum seed size and volume), while the rest of the genotypes were statistically the same. Weight, volume after hydration, hydration capacity and swelling capacity followed the same pattern. Maximum moisture, protein and mineral concentration were noted in CC98/99. Seed protein concentration for the remaining genotypes was statistically non‐significant from one another. Longer period was taken by CM 2000 for flowering and maturity (130 and 181 days, respectively). Minimum time to flowering and maturity was taken by CC98/99. Genotype CC 98/99 outyielded all other genotypes (2107 kg ha^?1). Seed size and seed volume were strongly and positively correlated with protein content, weight after hydration, volume after hydration, hydration and swelling capacities (r = 0.83–1.0). Strong correlation was also noted among different agronomic characters.     

Protein quality of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) protein hydrolysates

Chickpea protein isolate (CPI) was used as the starting material in the production of chickpea protein hydrolysates (CPHs). To obtain a highly extensive hydrolysate with a degree of hydrolysis higher than 50%, a sequential utilisation of endoprotease (Alcalase) and exoprotease (Flavourzyme) was necessary. Molecular weight patterns of CPHs were determined by gel filtration chromatography. As a result of the enzymatic activity, differences in the chromatographic pattern of CPHs were observed. Although significant (P⩽0.05) decreases of Phe and Arg were observed after hydrolysis, adequate amounts of essential amino acids in relation to the reference pattern of FAO (FAO/WHO/ONU, 1985. Energy and requirements. Technical report series No. 724. Geneva) were found. In vitro protein digestibility of CPHs (95%) were similar to that of the starting material (CPI), and TIA was not detected in any case. A high increase of solubility in CPHs, with respect to CPI, was observed, one CPH being totally soluble over a wide pH range (2–10) when the enzymes were added sequentially. Due to their high protein quality and solubility, CPHs might be considered as potential ingredients in the food industry.     

Extraction and characterization of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) albumin and globulin

ABSTRACT:  Albumin and globulin fractions of 1 Desi and 2 Kabuli varieties of chickpeas ( Cicer arietinum ) were extracted with water and salt solutions (K₂SO₄ and NaCl). The extractable yields and particularly the albumin-globulin ratio varied greatly with the extraction medium and chickpea variety. Depending on the procedure employed, albumin could be extracted as a major fraction of chickpea proteins. Higher levels of essential amino acids and sulfur containing amino acids were found in albumins than in globulins of all chickpeas investigated. The common structural characteristics of both Kabuli and Desi chickpea albumins and globulins were clearly identified by densitometric profiles of their sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel patterns. Albumins contained subunits with higher molecular weights than those of globulins. The in vitro digestibility of the chickpea proteins by papain, pepsin, chymotrypsin, and trypsin indicated that globulins were more susceptible to proteolytic hydrolysis.     

Technological properties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum): Production of snacks and health benefits related to type-2 diabetes

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is one of the most consumed pulses worldwide (over 2.3 million tons enter the world market annually). Some chickpea components have shown, in preclinical and clinical studies, several health benefits, including antioxidant capacity, and antifungal, antibacterial, analgesic, anticancer, antiinflammatory, and hypocholesterolemic properties, as well as angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibition. In the United States, chickpea is consumed mostly in the form of hummus. However, the development of new products with value-added bioactivity is creating new opportunities for research and food applications. Information about bioactive compounds and functional properties of chickpea ingredients in the development of new products is needed. The objective of this review was to summarize available scientific information, from the last 15 years, on chickpea production, consumption trends, applications in the food industry in the elaboration of plant-based snacks, and on its bioactive compounds related to type 2 diabetes (T2D). Areas of opportunity for future research and new applications of specific bioactive compounds as novel food ingredients are highlighted. Research is key to overcome the main processing obstacles and sensory challenges for the application of chickpea as ingredient in snack preparations. The use of chickpea bioactive compounds as ingredient in food products is also a promising area for accessibility of their health benefits, such as the management of T2D.     

Genotype and growing environment influence chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seed composition

BACKGROUND: As a first step towards genetic improvement of seed quality in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), seven desi and nine kabuli varieties were grown at multiple sites to assess the affect of environment on seed yield, weight and selected seed constituents. The sites were chosen to represent a range of environments in chickpea production areas of the Canadian prairies. RESULTS: Genotype × environment interaction effects on starch, amylose and protein (desi only) concentrations and seed yield were significant, suggesting that the varieties did not perform consistently relative to each other in the different environments. Starch concentration was negatively correlated (r_kabuli = ?0.25, P < 0.05; r_desi = ?0.16, P < 0.05) with protein concentration in both chickpea market classes. However, repeatability estimates of starch, amylose and protein concentrations were low and inconsistent across chickpea market classes, possibly owing to complex biosynthetic pathways for these constituents. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that testing for seed constituent traits over a range of environments will be required to improve seed quality in individual chickpea varieties. The best selection strategies for seed constituent improvement in chickpea will be influenced by genotype and genotype × environment interaction for these traits. The negative relationship between seed constituents and yield indicates that selection for chickpea cultivars with desired seed composition may require compromise and indirect selection. Copyright © 2009 Crown in the right of Canada. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Intrinsic variability of mineral composition of chickpea (Cicer arietinum,L.)

The influence of genetic biotype on the mineral composition of chickpea was studied. Experimental design included 37 cultivars of both Desi and Kabuli biotypes cultivated under the same climatic and agronomic conditions in order to exclude the variability of the results due to environment and genotype × environment interaction effects. The biotype, as source of variance in mineral composition, was a significant factor in explaining differences between Ca, Mg and K contents. Cu, Fe, Mn, Na and Zn contents did not show differences between biotypes. According to data previously published, differences may be explained by differences in the coat thickness and composition between biotypes. Two homogeneous subgroups of chickpea cultivars were identified, one having relatively high calcium contents and the other having relatively high iron contents.