Dose measurements around spallation neutron sources

Neutron dose measurements and calculations around spallation sources appear to be of great importance in shielding research. Two spallation sources were irradiated by high-energy proton beams delivered by the Nuclotron accelerator (JINR), Dubna. Neutrons produced by the spallation sources were measured by using solid-state nuclear track detectors. In addition, neutron dose was calculated after polyethylene and concrete, using a phenomenological model based on empirical relations applied in high-energy physics. The study provides an analytical and experimental neutron benchmark analysis using the transmission factor and a comparison between the experimental results and calculations.     

Calibration factors for determination of relativistic particle induced fission rates in U, U, Th, Pb and Au foils

Calibration factors w, for determination of fission rate in metallic foils of ^natU, ²³⁵U, ²³²Th, ^natPb and ¹⁹⁷Au were determined for foils in contact with synthetic mica track detectors. Proton-induced fission at proton energies of 0.7 GeV and 1.5 GeV were used. Using our experimental results as well as those of the other authors, w for different foil-mica systems were determined. Two methods were used to calculate w, relative to the calibration factor for uranium-mica system, which has been obtained in a standard neutron field of energy 14.7 MeV. One of these methods requires the knowledge of the mean range of the fission fragments in the foils of interest and other method needs information on the values of the fission cross-sections at the required energies as well as the density of the tracks recorded in the track detectors in contact with the foil surfaces. The obtained w-values were compared with Monte Carlo calculations and good agreements were found. It is shown that a calibration factor obtained at low energy neutron induced fissions in uranium isotopes deviates only by less than 10% from those obtained at relativistic proton induced fissions.     

Resolution of complex γ spectra from triple-coincidence data: Ba–Mo split in Cf spontaneous fission

Using triple-coincidence events of prompt fission γ rays from spontaneous fission of ²⁵²Cf, we made a new analysis of the yield matrix of coincident pairs of barium (Z=56) and molybdenum (Z=42) fission fragments. Branching from γ-bands (K=2) and octupole-bands (K=0) were also measured. From this reanalysis the previously proposed “extra-hot-fission mode” (8–10 neutrons evaporated) is much weaker than first reported. In this paper, we discuss in detail the methodology, including background subtraction for triple-coincidence data. The importance of minimal compression spectra allowing least-squares peak-fitting analysis is emphasized.     

Theoretical simulation of residual nuclide products in 208,207,206Pb, NATPb and 209Bi (P,X) reactions at intermediate and high energies

The independent and cumulative measured yields of residual products in thin lead and bismuth targets irradiated with 0.04-2.6 GeV protons are compared with results by the LAHET, CEM03, LAQGSM03, INCL+ABLA, CASCADE and YIELDX codes, in order to evaluate the predictive power of the codes in this energy region. We found that the predictive power of the tested codes is different but is satisfactory for most of the nuclides in the spallation region, though none of the codes agree well with the data in the whole-mass region of product nuclides and all should be improved further. On the whole, the predictive power of all codes for the data in the fission and fragmentation product regions and, especially, at the borders between spallation and fission and between fission and fragmentation regions is much worse than in the spallation region; therefore, development of better evaporation/fission/fragmentation models is of first priority.     

A fission-fragment-sensitive target for X-ray spectroscopy in neutron-induced fission

A fission-fragment-sensitive detector built for low-energy photon spectroscopy applications at the WNR “white” neutron source at Los Alamos is described. The detector consists of eight layers of thin photovoltaic cells, onto which 1 mg/cm² of pure ²³⁸U is deposited. The detector serves as an active target to select fission events from background and other reaction channels. The fairly small thickness of the detector with respect to transmission of 20–50 keV photons permits the measurement of prompt fission-fragment X-rays. Results with the GEANIE photon spectrometer are presented.     

Characterization of coatings on materials for components in fission and fusion reactors

With regard to applied materials fission and fusion reactors show corresponding properties: iron- and nickel-based alloys resistant to high temperatures are used as well as graphites, and in both systems special precautions have to be taken to minimize uncontrolled tritium release; in fission reactors, especially in high temperature gas-cooled reactors, corrosion of the metallic components plays a life-limiting role whereas in fusion reactors erosion, by chemical and physical processes, is of similar or still higher importance. A possible way to overcome some of the materials problems arising in both fission reactors and fusion reactors is to use materials coated with protecting layers optimized for the special problem. Here, one example will be discussed to highlight the application of coated materials in reactor technology for the reduction of hydrogen isotope permeation through metallic walls.For this purpose, a coating process is used for the production of the layers by which the hydrogen isotope permeation will be reduced. In this case, the alloys are subjected to an oxidation process—either by special pre-oxidation or in situ. Thus a surface oxide layer is formed. This layer is suitable for the reduction of tritium permeation when its structure and chemical composition fulfils certain conditions. The structural and chemical characterization of the oxide layer is discussed, and the conditions under which a convenient surface oxide layer can grow are described. The permeation-impeding factors achieved are specified for the different types of oxide scale.     

NECTAR—A fission neutron radiography and tomography facility

NECTAR (Neutron Computerized Tomography and Radiography) is a versatile facility for radiographic and tomographic investigations as well as for neutron activation experiments using fission neutrons.The radiation sources for this facility are two plates of highly enriched uranium situated in the moderator vessel in FRM II. Thermal neutrons originating from the main fuel element of the reactor generate in these plates fast neutrons. These can escape through a horizontal beam tube without moderation. The beam can be filtered and manipulated in order to reduce the accompanying gamma radiation and to match the specific experimental tasks.A summary of the main parameters required for experimental set-up and (quantitative) data evaluation is presented. The (measured) spectra of the neutron and gamma radiations are shown along with the effect of different filters on their behavior. The neutron and gamma fluxes, dose rates, L/D-ratios, etc. and the main parameters of the actually used detection systems for neutron imaging are given, too.     

Selection of fuel cladding material for nuclear fission reactors

The growing understanding of the link between carbon emissions and global warming has been promoting a discussion on the environmental and safety viability of nuclear power generation. Current open fuel cycle reactors, however, result in low energy efficiency and produce large volumes of nuclear waste. More advanced nuclear reactors, which are currently under investigation, are expected to allow more efficient and safer use of nuclear energy. In all these cases, the fuel cladding is the most important safety barrier in fission nuclear reactors, as it restrains most of the radioactive fission products within its volume. The selection of fuel cladding material is based on many design constraints, such as neutron absorption cross section, service temperature, mechanical strength, toughness, neutron radiation resistance, thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and chemical compatibility. The present paper reviews the selection of nuclear fuel cladding materials since the early reactors, illustrating some of the main failure modes and briefly discussing the challenges facing the development of fuel cladding materials for generation IV reactors.     

Observation of a triple correlation in ternary fission: is time reversal invariance violated?

In ternary fission, besides the two main fission fragments, a third (usually light) charged particle is emitted. A triple correlation has been studied involving the momenta for a specific fission fragment , the momenta of the ternary particle and the spin of the polarized cold neutron inducing fission . The correlation observable reverses sign upon time reversal and thus a non-vanishing value for the expectation value B could possibly be due to TRI being violated. However, final-state interactions or specific properties of the emission mechanism for ternary particles could equally well lead to a non-zero B with TRI being perfectly conserved. The reaction chosen was ²³³U(n,f). An unexpectedly large correlation was observed. From the raw data the value for B is B=−(0.78±0.02)×10⁻³ with the sign corresponding to light fragments. Corrections for neutron polarization, geometric efficiency, resolution of detectors and background increase this figure by a factor of (1.5±0.3).     

A twin ionization chamber for fission fragment detection

A twin ionization chamber for fission fragment detection is described. The detector permits measurement of the two fission fragment kinetic energies in an advantageous 2×2π geometry with an energy resolution of <0.5 MeV. The fission fragment emission angle θ with respect to the symmetry axis of the chamber is measured with a resolution in cos θ of <0.05. The fission fragment nuclear charge distributions can be determined and a timing signal can be extracted which allows a determination of the instant of fission with a time jitter of <0.7 ns. A pulse pileup rejection technique was developed which reduces pulse pileup by more than a factor 30. The electronic treatment of the chamber pulses and the data handling procedures including several of the necessary corrections are described in detail.     

A position sensitive ionisation chamber for measurement of fission fragments and medium mass heavy ions

A position sensitive ionisation chamber telescope is described with ΔE_gas---E_gas sections which can measure simultaneously the specific energy loss ΔE, energy E and the position of heavy ion reaction products in the median plane. The position information is derived by having a split ΔE structure and by adopting the pulse division method for the signals collected by the two ΔE sections. For on-line angle calibration, the E-part of the anode structure is also split into five segments. The detector was tested with fission fragments from a ²⁵²Cf spontaneous fission source and with heavy ions from the pelletron tandem accelerator. Simultaneous measurement of ΔE and E gives good separation for heavy and light fission fragment groups. The position resolution is found to be 1.1 mm for fission fragments. The detector has been used in heavy ion reaction studies for measuring fission fragments, providing good separation from projectile-like particles.     

An accelerator based steady state neutron source

Using high current, cw linear accelerator technology, a spallation neutron source can achieve much higher average intensities than existing or proposed pulsed spallation sources. With about 100 mA of 300 MeV protons or deuterons, the accelerator based neutron research facility (ABNR) would initially achieve the 10¹⁶ n/cm² s thermal flux goal of the advanced steady state neutron source, and upgrading could provide higher steady state fluxes. The relatively low ion energy compared to other spallation sources has an important impact on R&D requirements as well as capital cost, for which a range of $ 300–450M is estimated by comparison to other accelerator-based neutron source facilities. The source is similar to a reactor source in most respects. It has some higher energy neutrons but fewer gamma rays, and the moderator region is free of many of the design constraints of a reactor, which helps to implement sources for various neutron energy spectra, many beam tubes, etc. With the development of a multibeam concept and the basis for currents greater than 100 mA that is assumed in the R&D plan, the ABNR would serve many additional uses, such as fusion materials development, production of proton-rich isotopes, and other energy and defense program needs.     

Measurements of thick target fission yields as a probe of fission excitation functions for deep sub-barrier energies

A close-geometry experimental technique has been developed and used to measure thick target fission yields for protons on ²³⁸U from 4.2 to 12 MeV. Fission fragments were detected at back angles by an annular photo-voltaic detector in coincidence with γ-ray registered in large NaI(Tl) detector. The neutron induced fission background was monitored by a detector on the downstream side of the thick target. Measured yields compare well with those calculated from published thin target cross sections. This method has the required sensitivity to carry out measurements at still lower energies where recent measurements give conflicting findings.     

Variation of luminescence decay in BaF2 crystal excited by electrons,alpha particles and fission fragments

The time dependence of the luminescence from BaF₂ crystal excited by electrons, alpha particles and fission fragments has been studied for wavelengths of 180–400 nm by a single-photon counting technique. A (220 ± 10) nm component with a lifetime of 0.88 ns is observed for electron and fission fragment excitation. No 220 nm component is observed for alpha particle excitation. The (300+50(−40)) nm component has lifetimes of 600 and 100 ns for electron excitation, 550 and 50 ns for alpha particle excitation, and 580 and 9 ns for fission fragment excitation. The variation in time dependence is attributed to the difference in track structure produced by ionizing charged particles for different LET.     

Modeling of the fracture of elasticoplastic materials capable of undergoing a phase transition

An investigation was made of the fracture of a layer of iron undergoing a polymorphic α-ε phase transition caused by a detonation wave, using an elasticoplastic model of the deformation of a continuous medium with spallation. The influence of the elastic precursor on the spallation was identified. Pis’ma Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 24, 91–95 (September 26, 1998)     

Neutron threshold activation detectors (TAD) for the detection of fissions

Prompt fission neutrons are one of the strongest signatures of the fission process. Depending on the fission inducing radiation, their average number ranges from 2.5 to 4 neutrons per fission. They are more energetic and abundant, by about 2 orders of magnitude, than the delayed neutrons (≈3 vs. ≈0.01) that are commonly used as indicators for the presence of fissionable materials.The detection of fission prompt neutrons, however, has to be done in the presence of extremely intense probing radiation that stimulated them. During irradiation, the fission stimulation radiation, X-rays or neutrons, overwhelms the neutron detectors and temporarily incapacitate them. Consequently, by the time the detectors recover from the source radiation, fission prompt neutrons are no longer emitted. In order to measure the prompt fission signatures under these circumstances, special measures are usually taken with the detectors such as heavy shielding with collimation, use of inefficient geometries, high pulse height bias and gamma-neutron separation via pulse-shape discrimination with an appropriate organic scintillator. These attempts to shield the detector from the flash of radiation result in a major loss of sensitivity. It can lead to a complete inability to detect the fission prompt neutrons.In order to overcome the blinding induced background from the source radiation, the detection of prompt fission neutrons needs to occur long after the fission event and after the detector has fully recovered from the source overload. A new approach to achieve this is to detect the delayed activation induced by the fission neutrons. The approach demonstrates a good sensitivity in adverse overload situations (gamma and neutron “flash”) where fission prompt neutrons could normally not be detected.The new approach achieves the required temporal separation between the detection of prompt neutrons and the detector overload by the neutron activation of the detector material. The technique, called Threshold Activation Detection (TAD), is to utilize appropriate substances that can be selectively activated by the fission neutrons and not by the source radiation and then measure the radioactively decaying activation products (typically beta and gamma rays) well after the source pulse. The activation material should possess certain properties: a suitable half-life of the order of seconds; an energy threshold below which the numerous source neutrons will not activate it (e.g., 3 MeV); easily detectable activation products (typically >1 MeV beta and gamma rays) and have a usable cross-section for the selected reaction. Ideally the substance would be a part of the scintillator.There are several good material candidates for the TAD, including fluorine, which is a major constituent of available scintillators such as BaF₂, CaF₂ and hydrogen free liquid fluorocarbon. Thus the fluorine activation products, in particular the beta particles, can be measured with a very high efficiency in the detector.The principles, applications and experimental results obtained with the fluorine based TAD are discussed.     

A hybrid experimental/numerical approach to characterize interfacial adhesion in multilayer low-κ thin film specimens

The strength of multilayer low dielectric (low-κ) constant organo-silicate glass (OSG) and silicon-carbon-nitride (SiCN) thin film interfaces is characterized by a laser spallation technique. Two specimen sets with different OSG/SiCN stacking sequences are evaluated. The effect of helium (He) pretreatment is also investigated. The stress at the low-κ interface is enhanced through the use of a fused silica backing layer to shape the incident pulse and the addition of a thin gold (Au) top layer to increase inertial force during the dynamic failure event. The weakest interface in the multilayer stack (first to fail) is identified through optical images, profilometry and scanning electron microscope images of the spallation zone. The strength of the failed interface is inferred from the incident stress history in combination with a one dimensional dynamic wave propagation analysis. The adhesion strength of the OSG/SiCN interface (372 MPa) is 32% larger than that of Si/OSG (282 MPa) for specimens with no He pretreatement. The interfacial strength of both interfaces is significantly increased by a He pretreatment, making failure by spallation difficult.     

用于紫禁城清代建筑琉璃瓦保护的桥式硅氧烷的制备及性能研究

紫禁城清代建筑琉璃瓦是我国琉璃技艺的精华, 但是部分现存的琉璃瓦却出现了变色、污染、开裂、风化、剥釉等损坏。本工作针对剥釉损坏, 以异佛尔酮二异氰酸酯和3-氨基丙基三乙氧基硅烷为反应原料, 设计合成了具有桥联结构的硅氧烷(BSQ), 一种新型有机无机杂化材料, 并将其用于琉璃瓦的保护。测试了保护后琉璃瓦的吸水率、接触角、色差、透气性、抗压强度等参数; 并对保护后的琉璃瓦进行了耐化学侵蚀、耐冻融实验。结果表明, 保护后的琉璃瓦具有较好的憎水性, 强度得到提高, 釉面剥落现象得到明显的抑制。     

Response characteristics of thin film detectors to fission fragments

The dependence of the pulse height spectrum of a thin film detector (TFD) for fission fragments of ²⁵²Cf spontaneous fission on the thickness of scintillator film of the TFD was studied experimentally. The scintillator films used in the experiments were about 50, 100, 200 and 300 μg/cm² in thickness. The ratio of the yield of the heavy fragment peak to that of the light fragment peak became smaller as the film became thinner. The experimental result of the pulse height spectrum was analyzed by a luminescence production model which the present authors recently reported. The pulse height spectrum was represented satisfactorily by this model. The dependence of the pulse height spectrum on the incident beam position in the scintillator film was also investigated.