Rationalist assumptions in cross-media comparisons of computer-mediated communication

Users' comparisons between computer-mediated communication (CMC) and other forms of communication are of theoretical interest and have important implications for system design and implementation. This paper outlines the prevalent systems-rationalist perspective on CMC, which sees the medium primarily as an efficient channel for information transfer in specific organizational tasks, and critically reviews the evidence that studies of users' perceptions and media preferences offer for this generalized view. In advocating a widening of our perspective on CMC, a field study is described in which electronic mail users within a large commercial telecommunications company were invited to compare eight different communication activities, using repertory grid technique. From a total of 91 user-generated constructs, five principal dimensions were identified that accounted for users' discriminations among the different activities. Electronic mailing was construed as being similar to written activities (such as note-writing) on some dimensions (e.g., ' asynchrony', ' emotional quality' but similar to spoken, face-to-face communication on other dimensions such as ' spontaneity'. The results suggest that the group of users construed CMC mainly in terms of its attributes as a medium for conversation and social interaction. There was no evidence of spontaneous task-related media comparisons. These results together with findings from other studies are discussed in terms of rationalist and symbolic interactionist perspectives on CMC. Implications for system design are also considered.     

Student Perceptions of Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication in Face-to-Face Courses

While there are many distance education studies of student satisfaction or perceptions of CMC, studies on residential student perceptions of CMC are rare. A paper survey was administered to 105 residential graduate and undergraduate students at a midwestern U.S. university. Results indicated that the majority of students preferred face-to-face discussion over CMC for most tasks; however, CMC was preferred overall for simple learning tasks. Content analyses of student responses to open-ended questions revealed that some students perceived face-to-face discussion to be faster, easier, and more convenient, while others perceived that CMC saves time and is more convenient. A discriminant analysis revealed several important factors that predicted those who preferred CMC for discussion. Students further commented that they would learn better from CMC if their instructors were more involved with and enthusiastic about CMC. Speed and convenience appear to be more important to students than whether discussion is face-to-face or CMC .     

Communication goals and online persuasion: An empirical examination

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is frequently applied as a tool for organizational marketing and consumer research. This paper explores the underlying structure of message receivers’ communication goals and their impact on persuasiveness in the context of CMC. Extending prior research on the structure of primary and secondary goals, we identified five specific communication goals that are important to receivers. We conducted an online exercise in which subjects respond to a message requesting them to volunteer their time. The results demonstrate all five communication goals are important to one or more indicators of persuasiveness, including attitude toward the issue, source credibility, perceived information quality, and behavioral intention to comply with the request.     

Equality of participation and influence in groups: The effects of communication medium and sex composition

We tested the claim that computer-mediated communication (CMC) is more egalitarian than face-to-face (FTF) communication by studying patterns of reported participation and influence in 30 FTF and 30 synchronous CMC groups over seven weeks. Twenty-two of these groups were composed of a majority of males or females; these were used to test effects of communication medium and sex composition on relative levels of participation and influence among group members. Competing predictions were derived from three theories: proportional theory, social role theory, and expectation states theory. Results indicated that CMC participation was perceived as more centralized than was FTF participation in groups' first meetings, but as similar for the remaining six meetings. Results revealed no or weak support for any of the competing theories of sex composition. Influence was perceived as most centralized in CMC majority-male groups and in FTF majority-female groups. In CMC groups, males in majority-female groups were perceived as having more influence than their female group members, whereas males in majority-male groups were perceived as having less influence than their female group members. In FTF groups, the ratio of male-to-female influence in majority-male and majority-female groups did not differ significantly. Implications of these findings and the need for additional longitudinal research are discussed.     

Gender and computer-mediated communication: group processes in problem solving

The study reports results from an experiment investigating aspects of communicative processes, using face-to-face (FtF) communication and computer-mediated communication (CMC). The latter was performed in two variants: participants writing under their own names or participants writing anonymously. There were two problems to be solved, both having ambiguous solutions. The theoretical aim was to determine if gender would influence communication equality, social relations, and communicative processes. Furthermore, private and public self-awareness was studied in order to identify differences between the media and between the sexes. The results show that participants discussing FtF were more private self-aware than participants in CMC, and females were more private self-aware than males. Females produced more messages in FtF communication than they did in CMC, and there were also more opinion change from females than from males. Social judgements were more positive from females than from males. A qualitative analysis showed that females expressed more opinions and agreements in FtF communication than in CMC, but also that they agreed more than males in responding to messages from a male. There were also more disagreements in FtF communication than in CMC.     

Group processes in solving two problems: face-to-face and computer-mediated communication

In this study, an experiment on communication and problem solving in face-to-face communication and computermediated communication was conducted. The latter was performed in two variants; subjects writing under their own name or subjects writing anonymously. The problems were a Social Dilemma problem and a Criminal Puzzle problem. The theoretical starting point was if, and how, the communication form influences social relations, communication equality and communication processes. A qualitative analysis showed that different problems were related to different patterns of the variables studied. The computer-mediated communication solving the Criminal Puzzle problem induced relatively greater idea generation that was not responded to, while the face-toface communication was associated with relatively more answers. In the Social Dilemma, feedback was relatively more common in face-to-face communication than in computermediated communication. To 'give information about the game' was relatively more common in the anonymous computer-mediated communication than face-to-face situation, indicating that computer-mediated communication is associated with speaker generation of information, but less with responses to the interlocutor. There were no outcome differences or communication equality effects related to communication condition. These results point to the importance of the task related activities in the discussions rather than the importance of medium.     

The role of emotion in computer-mediated communication: A review

It has been argued that the communication of emotions is more difficult in computer-mediated communication (CMC) than in face-to-face (F2F) communication. The aim of this paper is to review the empirical evidence in order to gain insight in whether emotions are communicated differently in these different modes of communication. We review two types of studies: (1) studies that explicitly examine discrete emotions and emotion expressions, and (2) studies that examine emotions more implicitly, namely as self-disclosure or emotional styles. Our conclusion is that there is no indication that CMC is a less emotional or less personally involving medium than F2F. On the contrary, emotional communication online and offline is surprisingly similar, and if differences are found they show more frequent and explicit emotion communication in CMC than in F2F.     

Group processes in solving two problems: Face-to-face and computer-mediated communication

In this study, an experiment on communication and problem solving in face-to-face communication and computermediated communication was conducted. The latter was performed in two variants; subjects writing under their own name or subjects writing anonymously. The problems were a Social Dilemma problem and a Criminal Puzzle problem. The theoretical starting point was if, and how, the communication form influences social relations, communication equality and communication processes. A qualitative analysis showed that different problems were related to different patterns of the variables studied. The computer-mediated communication solving the Criminal Puzzle problem induced relatively greater idea generation that was not responded to, while the face-toface communication was associated with relatively more answers. In the Social Dilemma, feedback was relatively more common in face-to-face communication than in computermediated communication. To 'give information about the game' was relatively more common in the anonymous computer-mediated communication than face-to-face situation, indicating that computer-mediated communication is associated with speaker generation of information, but less with responses to the interlocutor. There were no outcome differences or communication equality effects related to communication condition. These results point to the importance of the task related activities in the discussions rather than the importance of medium.     

Configurations of Relationships in Different Media: FtF, Email, Instant Messenger, Mobile Phone, and SMS

This study analyzes the configurations of communication relationships in Korea through face-to-face, email, instant messaging, mobile phone, and short message service media. Through a web survey, we asked respondents to identify (1) for each of the five media (2) up to five of their most frequent communication partners, (3) the partner's social role (including colleagues, family, friends), and (4) their own employment category. Individual-level and network-level analyses were used to compare variations in communication relationships and configurations of relationships among social roles overall, within each medium, and for different employment categories, and to identify configurations of relationships across media. IM, SMS, and mobile phone are distinctive media for students, mobile phone for homeworkers, and email for organizational workers. Moreover, mobile phones tend to be used in reinforcing strong social ties, and text-based CMC media tend to be used in expanding relationships with weak ties. Finally, face-to-face (FtF) seems to be a universal medium without significant differences across respondents' employment categories.     

The development of group identity in computer and face-to-face groups with membership change

A three-part conception of group identity is proposed that draws on common fate, cohesiveness, and cognitive views of group identity. The changing contribution of these three components to group identity was examined for 31 original and 29 reconfigured groups which met for 7 consecutive weeks using either face-to-face (FIF) or computer-mediated communication (CMC). Group identity was consistently lower for computer-mediated groups, and this effect was stronger in the reconfigured groups. In the original groups, group identity started high and declined for both FTF and CMC groups. In the reconfigured groups, developmental patterns differed from those of the original groups, and also differed by communication medium. Individual differences accounted for a substantial amount of variance in group identity across original and reconfigured groups.     

Covert Channel Secure Hypercube Message Communication

The hypercube multiprocessor is a popular architecture in parallel computing environments. Recently, computer security and privacy issues have gained significance. This paper considers the security issues of a network of processors connected over a hypercube topology. We demonstrate that a covert channel can be established by exploiting the underlying message communication mechanism of the hypercube, even when the access-control denies such communication. This can occur because node-to-node communication in a hypercube may require multiple hops and two or more disjoint message communications may actually be transmitted along common links. Congestion (and the resulting delay) in such shared links can provide the basis for a covert channel. We introduce security considerations for a multiprocessor by focussing on the covert channel issue in hypercube message communication. A security model for the hypercube routing function is presented. Based on noninterference, we develop sufficient conditions for the routing mechanism to be free of covert channels. Two secure hypercube message routing approaches are proposed for store-and-forward communication strategy. The first approach (Virtual Channel) achieves security by fixed bandwidth partitioning of links, for which the price is paid in delay performance. The second approach (Bypass) prioritizes lower security class messages, for which delay of higher class messages is sacrificed. Performance (i.e., cost of security) of these two approaches are shown using simulation. Finally, a time-out feature is introduced to the Bypass approach, which disallows potential starvation of higher class messages at the expense of limited bandwidth covert channel. Maximum covert channel bandwidth (in terms of the time-out parameter) is analyzed.     

Texting insincerely: The role of the period in text messaging

Text messaging is one of the most frequently used computer-mediated communication (CMC) methods. The rapid pace of texting mimics face-to-face communication, leading to the question of whether the critical non-verbal aspects of conversation, such as tone, are expressed in CMC. Much of the research in this domain has involved large corpus analyses, focusing on the contents of texts, but not how receivers comprehend texts. We ask whether punctuation – specifically, the period – may serve as a cue for pragmatic and social information. Participants read short exchanges in which the response either did or did not include a sentence-final period. When the exchanges appeared as text messages, the responses that ended with a period were rated as less sincere than those that did not end with a period. No such difference was found for handwritten notes. We conclude that punctuation is one cue used by senders, and understood by receivers, to convey pragmatic and social information.     

What do students do in a F2F CSCL classroom? The optimization of multiple communications modes

This exploratory study analyzes how students use different communication modes to share information, negotiate meaning and construct knowledge in the process of doing a group learning activity in a Primary Grade 5 blended learning environment in Singapore. Small groups of students interacted face-to-face over a computer-mediated communication (CMC) technology called Group Scribbles (GS) to jointly complete a learning task. The lesson designers attempted to optimize the use of CMC technology and face-to-face (F2F) discussion in students’ collaborative learning, with the aim of harnessing the specific features of each medium. Building on notions from communication studies and from interaction analysis, we observed the construction and evolution of the interactions through analyzing the artifacts that were produced by a group of students – in verbal talk, gestures, and sketches drawn and text inscribed in GS. F2F and GS interactions intertwined to support collaborative learning. The findings from this study could inform design aspects concerning integrating and reinforcing the strengths of both communication modes when introducing computer-assisted collaborative learning (CSCL) in a F2F classroom.     

Getting to know you: Face-to-face versus online interactions

It is an open question as to how impressions formed via computer-mediated communication (CMC) differ from those formed face-to-face (FtF). Some research suggests that judgments of others formed while interacting over CMC are more favorable than judgments formed in FtF, while other researchers argue the pattern is in the opposite direction. We sought to settle this conflict by examining impressions formed via each communication mode while controlling for the other. Participants interacted with a partner twice: once FtF and once CMC. When controlling for each communication mode, participants interacting FtF, formed more positive impressions of their partner than did those in the other sequence. Furthermore, FtF participants had greater self-other agreement then those who interacted via CMC. Implications for impressions formed over the Internet are discussed.     

Understanding risk-taking behavior of groups: A “decision analysis” perspective

Past research has extensively investigated the effect of media, especially focusing on how anonymity increases risk-related behaviors of groups when using computer-mediated communication (CMC). This study extends prior research by examining the differences in group risk-taking behaviors between face-to-face groups and completely non-anonymous CMC groups (i.e., groups working in a fully identified, synchronous CMC environment similar to popular instant messaging systems utilized widely within organizations). Drawing on the “decision analysis” perspective, a key framework for understanding organizational decision-making, the study also examines the effects of the firm's risk preferences as well as the type of information distribution among group members (i.e., full information known to all group members versus partial information know by only some of the members) on the groups' risk-taking behaviors. Results from a laboratory experiment using student subjects found no differences in risk-taking behaviors between CMC and face-to-face groups; additionally, no differences were found related to how information was distributed among group members. A significant effect was found, however, for the risk preference of the firm, showing that risk-neutral firms influenced groups to make riskier decisions than groups from risk-averse firms. Finally, groups within risk-neutral firms receiving partial information made riskier decisions than groups receiving full information. The implications of these results for future research and practice are examined.     

Stabilizing data-link over non-FIFO channels with optimal fault-resilience

Self-stabilizing systems have the ability to converge to a correct behavior when started in any configuration. Most of the work done so far in the self-stabilization area assumed either communication via shared memory or via FIFO channels.This paper is the first to lay the bases for the design of self-stabilizing message passing algorithms over unreliable non-FIFO channels. We propose an optimal stabilizing data-link layer that emulates a reliable FIFO communication channel over unreliable capacity bounded non-FIFO channels (the channel capacity is known to the protocol).     

SCHOM. A tool for communication and collaborative e-learning

Emerging technologies cause changes in education. These changes result in new human learning processes that evolve to collaborative e-learning approach, where social and mobile networks take a great relevance.In this paper we introduce SCHOM (SCHOlar Messaging). We have developed this tool for communication and collaborative e-learning in wired and wireless environments. SCHOM, a SaaS (Software as a Service) in the cloud, allows the exchange of information between members of a domain intra and/or inter academic. SCHOM can be used in different communication channels such as e-mail, instant messaging, chats, discussion boards or microblogging. Besides, it supports different devices: smartphones, tablets or computers.One of the main advantages of this tool is that it ensures the digital anonymous. For instance, one user could send a message to other one knowing his identity. Nevertheless the user will not know the communication channel used to send the message. Each user selects the channels whereby he wants to receive his messages.Registered users on the system are organized in groups (or organizational units) by forming relationships n:m. Groups in turn can be nested to build hierarchical structures that can simulate real work environments, for example, a faculty with its degrades, courses and subjects, … A group (each member regardless of the nesting level) can also be receiver of messages.     

Text-based communication influences self-esteem more than face-to-face or cellphone communication

Meaningful social interactions are positively associated with improvements in self-esteem, but this phenomenon has largely been unexplored in digital media despite the prevalence of new, text-based communication (e.g. Facebook, texting, email, etc.). To address this gap in the literature the frequency and quality, or meaningfulness, of communication was measured in mediated and non-mediated channels across a random sample of 3649 social interactions using Experience Sampling Methods. Results revealed that most communication took place face-to-face (62%), with less text-based (about 22%) and cell phone voice (14%) communication. Meaningful face-to-face and text-based communication were associated with changes in self-esteem according to a marginally significant and significant finding, respectively. Text-based communication was more important for self-esteem than face-to-face or phone communication, which is consistent with research on the magnifying effect of text-based communication on interpersonal processes. According to the Internet enhanced self-disclosure hypothesis, the psychological benefits of text-based communication stems from enhanced self-disclosure, which is also supported in the data. Additional work is needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying the positive relationship between meaningful text-based interactions and self-esteem, but findings point to the important role of digital communication for psychological health.     

A reexamination of deindividuation in synchronous computer-mediated communication

Classical deindividuation theory has been posited as a useful framework for understanding certain cognitive and behavioral changes commonly seen in computer-mediated communication (CMC). Participants in CMC discussion groups were significantly more immersed in the discussion than face-to-face (FTF) discussants, and tended not to perceive their team members as individuals, providing evidence that the CMC users met the cognitive criteria for a state of deindividuation. Nevertheless, CMC participants did not produce more negative behaviors than FTF participants, demonstrating that it is insufficient to attribute negative behavior solely to a deindividuated state. These results are discussed in light of classical deindividuation theory and are contrasted with predictions from the more recent social identity/deindividuation model.     

Computer-mediated communication to support distributed requirements elicitations and negotiations tasks

Requirements engineering is one of the most communication-intensive activities in software development, greatly affected by project stakeholder geographical distribution. Despite advances in collaboration technologies, global software teams continue to experience significant challenges in the elicitation and negotiation of requirements. Deciding which communication technologies to deploy to achieve effective communication in distributed requirements engineering activities is not a trivial task. Is face-to-face or text-based communication more appropriate for requirements elicitations and negotiations? In teams that do not have access to face-to-face communication, is text-based communication more useful in requirements elicitations than in requirements negotiations? Here, we report an empirical study that analyzes the effectiveness of synchronous computer-mediated communication in requirements elicitations and negotiations. Our investigation is guided by a theoretical framework that we developed from theories of computer-mediated communication, common ground, and media selection for group tasks; a framework that considers the effectiveness of a communication medium in relation to the information richness needs of requirements elicitation and negotiation tasks. Our findings bring forward empirical evidence about the perceived as well as objective fit between synchronous communication technology and requirements tasks. First, face-to-face is not always the most preferred medium for requirements tasks, and we reveal a number of conditions in which, in contrast to common belief, text-based communication is preferred for requirements communication. Second, we find that in evaluating outcomes of requirements elicitations and negotiations objectively, group performance is not affected by the communication medium. Third, when groups interact only via text-based communication, common ground in requirements negotiations takes longer to achieve than in requirements elicitations, indicating that distributed requirements elicitation is the task where computer-mediated communication tools have most opportunity for successful application.