Age as a moderator of attitude towards technology in the workplace: work motivation and overall job satisfaction

Given the prevalence of technology in the workplace, an understanding of employees' attitudes towards technology is essential. Such attitudes have been linked to such important issues as the successful implementation of new technologies in the workplace, employee intent to use technology, and the actual usage of technology by employees. As a result of the rapidly aging workforce, and because age has been linked to computer use and comfort, it is important to examine the relationship that may exist between age and attitudes towards technology. This study examines age as a moderator of 612 employees' attitudes towards technology in relation to work motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and overall job satisfaction. Further, given the technological socialisation of the Generation X (Gen X) versus the Baby Boomers, our sample comprised these two demographics. Hierarchical moderated multiple regression indicates age moderates the relationship between attitude towards technology and intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and to a lesser extent, overall job satisfaction. In each instance, older employees exhibit the strongest relationships with the outcome variables when possessing a high attitude towards technology. In contrast, older employees exhibit the weakest relationships when possessing a low attitude towards technology. These results are supportive of the moderating effect of age on attitude towards technology. Lastly, implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Computer experience and computer anxiety

In this article two studies are reported that tested the nature of the relationship between computer experience and computer anxiety. In the first study 184 first year psychology students were given a questionnaire that measured their computer experience in terms of e.g. breadth of experience, hours spent on working with computers, skills level, the nature of the first computer experience and the occurrence of computer anxiety. A combined latent-factor path model depicting the relationship between experience and anxiety was construed and tested by means of EQS. The model in which computer experience unidirectionally influenced computer anxiety showed a reasonable fit (CFI=0.91). Two other models were also tested. The model in which experience was a consequence of anxiety in terms of physical arousal and affect and the reciprocal model showed insufficient fit (CFI=0.79 and 0.86). A second study among 225 first and third year psychology students was done to see if the original model could be improved upon. Adding the variables “sex” and “necessity of use of computers” into the model improved the fit of the model (CFI=0.93); it was also found that the amount of control felt during the first experience raised levels of feeling computer literate and liking the computer.     

Elderly Japanese computer users: assessing changes in usage,attitude, and skill transfer over a one-year period

Changes and interrelations among computer usage, computer attitude, and skill transfer of elderly Japanese computer users were investigated over a one-year period. Each participant, aged 60 to 76 years, was provided with one touchscreen-based computer specialized for e-mail handling for 12 months. Participants usage of the computer, mouse and/or keyboard, and computer attitudes were investigated. The results showed that the Liking factor of the computer attitude scale was a possible predictor of computer usage. The results suggested the existence of four different types of users adaptation to computers, according to a combination of the Liking and Confidence dimensions of computer attitude.     

Computer anxiety and anger: the impact of computer use, computer experience, and self-efficacy beliefs

Past research has demonstrated that the level of computer experience users have is the most valuable predictor in whether or not they will suffer computer anxiety symptoms, but this was not the case in the present study. No research was found which examined the correlates of computer anger symptoms. In the current study, the relationship between the computer use (frequency and duration), computer experience, and self-efficacy beliefs of users were analyzed as predictors for computer anxiety and anger symptoms. Questionnaire data from a sample of 242 university students were analyzed. The results indicated that computer self-efficacy beliefs, not computer experience or use, had the largest significant relationship with both computer anxiety, and anger. It is suggested that self-efficacy beliefs be increased so that users may experience lower levels of anxiety and anger. These findings are contrary to the trend of training computer users in specific computer domains. As computer anxiety and anger are negative psychological “states”, an immediate method to deal with these negative emotions should be developed. One possibility that is explored is the application of computer-based therapy that can be used while a user is experiencing negative emotional symptoms.     

Effects of individual characteristics,organizational factors and task characteristics on computer programmer productivity and job satisfaction

Several individual characteristics of computer programmers (self- esteem, level of experience, and mathematical aptitude); four organizational factors (perceived supervisory initiated structure, perceived supervisor consideration, perceived level of performance feedback, and perceived degree of participation in organizational decisions); and five task characteristics (skill variety, task variety, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) are related to computer programmer productivity and job satisfaction. Measurement was accomplished via questionnaires; least squares multiple regression was used to test the hypotheses.     

Computer anxiety and attitudes among undergraduate students in Greece

This study attempts to give an insight to the computer anxiety levels and attitudes toward computers of the students of the Library and Information Systems (LIS) Department of Technological Educational Institute (TEI) of Thessaloniki using Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) and Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS). Both constructs were examined using explanatory factor analysis. Internal consistency of the factors of each construct was satisfactory. It was found that there was a strong negative relationship between the two concepts. Canonical correlation analysis demonstrated that anxiety explains more variance of the attitudes than vice versa. Another finding was that most of LIS students were not anxious toward computers and with positive attitudes. Factors correlated negatively with anxiety and positively with attitudes, were knowledge of English language, PC ownership, access of students to computers at younger ages, perceived advanced computer skills and computer experience as reflected by frequency of computer use.     

A multivariate comparison of computer anxiety levels between candidate and tenured school principals

School administrators should be able to follow technological advancements and promote the role of leadership with regard to technology in their institutions. However, affective factors such as computer anxiety might hinder administrators’ roles in this process. Therefore, this study investigated multivariate differences between candidate and tenured administrators on computer anxiety levels, after accounting for differences in age. The sample of the study included 216 candidates and 368 tenured school principals. The Computer Anxiety Scale and a set of demographic questions were used to collect the data. One-way multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was performed on three dependent variables that are the three dimensions of computer anxiety (i.e., Affective Anxiety, Damaging Anxiety, and Learning Anxiety). Independent variable had two levels (i.e., candidate versus tenured administrators) and age was used as a covariate. Results showed multivariate significant differences. Candidate administrators reported higher levels of affective and learning anxiety compared to their tenured colleagues. We conclude that the sample of the study had accessibility and familiarity with computers; yet, showed different experiences. Finally, refinement is still needed in the area of computer anxiety and its relationships with other variables among educational administrators.     

Computer attitude,statistics anxiety and self-efficacy on statistical software adoption behavior: An empirical study of online MBA learners

Educators need to know how to motivate business students (i.e., future business practitioners) to learn and use statistical software, which can provide the practical skills necessary for business professionals to analyze data and make informed decisions. Using a sample of 207 online MBA students from an AACSB accredited university in the Midwest, a modified TAM model was examined using LISREL 8.80. The empirical results show that both computer attitude and statistical software self-efficacy have significant, positive effects on perceived usefulness. In addition, it was found that both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use positively influence learners’ intentions to use statistical software, whereas their anxiety with statistics has a significant, negative impact on perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and behavioral intentions. Both theoretical and practical implications are discussed in this paper.     

Mood change and computer anxiety: A comparison between computerised and paper measures of negative affect

The lack of equivalence between computerized and pencil-and-paper administration in measures of negative affect have been attributed to variance created by negative affect towards computers or computer anxiety (CA). In the current study, paper baseline computer anxiety and state/trait anxiety measures were obtained from 51 first-year psychology undergraduate volunteers. Further measures were taken by either paper or computer before and after students received their grade for the first research methods practical report of the course. Levels of state anxiety (SA) were found to increase significantly at this time. A lexical decision task was completed at each measurement stage as an additional behavioural mood indicator. Results revealed that CA was only related to SA prior to receipt of grade, at a point where equivalence between administration method of measures had been demonstrated. Non-equivalence in measurement of SA occurred after students had received their mark, in that levels of anxiety increased in the computer condition and decreased in the paper condition. Lack of equivalence, therefore, appears to be a function of psychological stress, characterised by affective modulation rather than CA.     

Computers and the Internet as a job assisted tool: based on the three-tier use model approach

Personal attitudes are a major factor to affect individual information technology usage. The purpose of this study is to explore the role of individual attitudes toward computers and the Internet usage for assisting job performance. This research applies the 3-TUM approach to understand individual attitudes toward computers and the Internet usage. After statistical analysis, the results provide a support that the 3-TUM is appropriate model for investigating faculty and staff perceptions toward computers and Internet. In addition, the results also support that using computers and the Internet may assist individual job performance. Furthermore; this study offer evidence that when individuals have more self-efficacy and feel computers and the Internet are more useful, then they have more behavioral intention to use and learn computers and the Internet for assisting their job performance.     

The relationship between circadian,personality, and temperament characteristics and attitude towards shiftwork

This study aimed to find out whether and to what extent circadian and personality characteristics contribute in determining attitude towards shiftwork. Two groups of female steel plant shift- (n = 54) and dayworkers (n = 54) were matched for age, job tenure, marital status, number, and age of children. The control group was made up of 2 subgroups of dayworkers with (n = 29) and without (n = 25) shiftwork experience. The subjects answered questionnaires on morningness, flexibility, languidity, neuroticism, extroversion, reactivity, and attitude towards shiftwork. Correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were performed on the data of experimental group and control subgroups separately. Amongst current shiftworkers, the best predictors of attitude towards shiftwork were flexibility of sleeping habits and the ability to overcome drowsiness. Amongst former shiftworkers attitude was determined primarily by reactivity, but in the dayworkers without shiftwork experience no predictors of the attitude were found. The results imply that circadian and personality characteristics related to shiftwork adjustment contribute in determining attitude towards shiftwork.     

Nonparametric item analysis and confirmatory factorial validity of the computer attitude scale for secondary students

The use of computers in secondary schools allows a better preparation of students for their future careers and offers opportunities for refining critical thinking skills. Thus, the development of a valid attitude scale towards computers for students is very important because it could lead to the development or modification of computer fluency curricula. The aim of the study was (a) to examine the factorial structure (affect, behavior, and cognition) of the Computer Attitude Scale for Secondary Students (CASSS) through confirmatory factor analysis, and (b) to determine how well the test and its items discriminate among individuals differing in the strength of their attitude toward computers through nonparametric item analyses. The analyses were conducted on two samples of high school students (n₁=421; n₂=422) who completed the CASSS, a 40-item questionnaire. Results showed that (a) the option characteristic curves (OCC) and item characteristic curve (ICC) of each item revealed certains problems for some items, (b) the reliability of the CASSS is excellent at all levels of the attitude scale, being around 0.96 for students having the least favorable attitude toward computer and 0.88 for students having a more favorable attitude toward computers, and (c) a higher-order or hierarchical model underlies the theoretical structure of the CASSS.     

Computer anxiety: Comparison of research from the 1990s and 2000s

As computers became ubiquitous in businesses, homes, and schools, there was increasing concern about computer anxiety and its effect on individuals. The first academic articles on computer anxiety were published in the early 1980s. Since that time, hundreds of papers have been published on the topic. Yet, up to this time, no one has done a comprehensive review of computer anxiety. In this article, 276 articles on computer anxiety are reviewed. From a synthesis of the articles and variables studied to date, a framework is developed that outlines the primary topics studied in computer anxiety literature. Nine antecedents, five correlates, and two outcomes of computer anxiety are identified as the most studied variables in the literature. In addition, a statistical comparison is done to compare the distribution of computer anxiety topics and results published in the 1990s to those published in the 2000s. Suggestions for future research in computer anxiety are proposed.     

Gender differences in computer attitudes and the choice of technology-related occupations in a sample of secondary students in Spain

The dearth of women in technology and ICT-related fields continues to be a topic of interest for both the scientific community and decision-makers. Research on attitudes towards computers proves that women display more negative computer attitudes than men and also make less intense use of technology and computers than their male counterparts. For this reason, the main aims of this study are threefold. Firstly, to analyze the existence of gender differences in three dimensions of computer attitudes in a group of 550 secondary students in Spain (mean of age = 15 years old; SD = 1.73). Secondly, to study the moderating influence of a group of contextual variables on those gender differences in computer attitudes. And thirdly, to examine the predictive role of computer attitudes on the intention to pursue technology-related occupations. Some of the analyses of variance carried out show more positive computer attitudes in boys than in girls. These differences are more salient among students coming from rural areas and the upper social class, who are also enrolled in the domain of technology in secondary education, and whose mothers have no occupation outside the home. Finally, simple logistic regressions were carried out in order to prove that all dimensions of computer attitudes predict the enrollment intentions to pursue technology-related occupations. Nonetheless, gender only moderates the relationship between the cognitive dimension of computer attitudes and the enrollment intentions to pursue technology-related occupations.     

The relationship between Internet identification,Internet anxiety and Internet use

This paper reports a study investigating the relationship between Internet identification, Internet anxiety and Internet use. The participants were 446 students (319 females and 127 males) from two universities in the UK and one university in Australia. Measures of Internet identification and Internet anxiety were developed. The majority of participants were NOT anxious about using the Internet, although there were approximately 8% who showed evidence of Internet anxiety. There was a significant and negative relationship between Internet anxiety and Internet use. Those who were more anxious about using the Internet used the Internet less, although the magnitude of effect was small. There was a positive and significant relationship between Internet use and Internet identification. Those who scored high on the measure of Internet identification used the Internet more than those who did not. There was also a significant and negative relationship between Internet anxiety and Internet identification. Finally, males had a significantly higher Internet identification score than females. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

The impact of customer interface quality, satisfaction and switching costs on e-loyalty: Internet experience as a moderator

Customer interface quality has been confirmed to critically influence the success of electronic commerce, and there has been extensive discussion about the effects of customer interface quality on consumer behavior. However, few studies have examined how customer interface quality affects e-loyalty. Furthermore, although satisfaction and switching costs are expected to be antecedents to customer loyalty, few studies have systematically examined how these elements are related to customer interface quality. This study proposes an integrating theoretical framework for testing the relationships among customer interface quality, satisfaction, switching costs, and e-loyalty. Moreover, this study argues that the relationships among these constructs are moderated by Internet experience. Empirical analyses are performed using structural equations modeling analysis. The findings confirm that customer interface quality, including customization, interaction, convenience and character, contributes to generating e-loyalty. Particularly, the results show that convenience directly enhances e-loyalty. Additionally, this study finds that customer interface quality positively influences switching costs for customers with higher Internet experience, a phenomenon that has not previously been explored.     

Exploring the relationship between emotions and the acquisition of computer knowledge

Most computer users have to deal with major software upgrades every 6–18 months. Given the pressure of having to adjust so quickly and so often, it is reasonable to assume that users will express emotional reactions such as anger, desperation, anxiety, or relief during the learning process. To date, the primary emotion studied with respect to computer knowledge has been anxiety or fear. The purpose of the following study was to explore the relationship among a broader range of emotions (anger, anxiety, happiness, and sadness) and the acquisition of nine computer related skills. Pre- and post-surveys were given to 184 preservice education students enrolled in 8 month, integrated laptop program. Happiness was expressed most of the time – anxiety, anger, and sadness were reported sometimes. Anxiety and anger levels decreased significantly, while computer knowledge increased. All four emotions were significantly correlated with all nine computer knowledge areas at the beginning of the program, but happiness and anxiety were the only emotions significantly related to change in computer knowledge.     

Age as a moderator in the relationship between work-related characteristics,job dissatisfaction and need for recovery

Job dissatisfaction and need for recovery are associated with voluntary turnover, absenteeism and diminished health. In the light of encouraging working longer, this study investigated whether the relationships between various work characteristics and job dissatisfaction and need for recovery are dependent on age. Cross-sectional questionnaire data from 591 university employees were divided into four age groups: < 36, 36–44, 45–54 and ≥ 55 years. Multivariate regression analyses were used, including interaction variables to detect a moderating effect of age group. Limited age group effects were found: only the association of Feedback with job dissatisfaction and Task variety with need for recovery were influenced by age group. The salience of specific work characteristics within the age groups varied: for job dissatisfaction, Task variety ( < 55) and Changes in tasks ( ≥ 55) were most important. For need for recovery, this applied to Autonomy ( < 36) and Workload ( ≥ 45). To encourage working longer, age-specific measures could be considered, in addition to individual measures, to respond to individual needs.

Practitioner summary: Demographic changes increase the importance to stimulate working longer. Using questionnaire data, we investigated the relationship between work characteristics, job dissatisfaction and need for recovery in four age groups. Although the moderating effect of age group was rather limited, the salience of specific work characteristics within the age groups varied.