CFD analysis of a turbulent jet behavior induced by a steam jet discharge through a single hole in a subcooled water tank

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis for a turbulent jet flow induced by a steam jet discharged into a subcooled water pool was performed for 10 s of transients to investigate whether the currently available CFD codes can be suitably used as a tool to investigate the applicability of the existing semi-analytical correlations to a condensing jet-induced turbulent jet and to analyze the thermal-hydraulic behavior, such as global circulation and local hot spot, in a condensation pool for advanced light water reactors. As for the numerical experiment, a series of sensitivity calculations was conducted systematically to elucidate the major factors which can cause different analysis results by varying the mesh distributions, numerical models for a convection term and an eddy viscosity term. The effect of a difference in the velocity and the temperature distribution in a region between the sparger and the pool wall has not been observed in the afore-mentioned sensitivity calculations. The comparison of the CFD results with the test data shows that the CFD analysis does not accurately simulate the local phenomenon of a turbulent jet existing downstream of a steam jet. It was found that the value of the turbulent intensity at the inlet of the turbulent jet region is the most important factor because it can determine the boundary of a turbulent jet through a momentum diffusion process in a radial direction. The comparison of the CFD results with the test data shows that the CFD analysis can accurately simulate the local phenomenon of a turbulent jet existing downstream of a steam jet only when the CFD analysis reflects the physics of a turbulent jet.     

CFD analysis for thermal mixing in a subcooled water tank under a high steam mass flux discharge condition

A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis for a thermal mixing test was performed for 30 s to develop the methodology for a numerical analysis of the thermal mixing between steam and subcooled water and to apply it to Advanced Power Reactor 1400 MWe (APR1400). In the CFD analysis, the steam condensation phenomenon by a direct contact was simulated by the so-called condensation region model. Thermal mixing phenomenon in the subcooled water tank was treated as an incompressible flow, a free surface flow between the air and the water, and a turbulent flow, which are implemented in the CFX4.4. The comparison of the CFD results with the test data showed a good agreement as a whole, but a small local temperature difference was found at some locations. A sensitivity analysis was performed to find the reason of the temperature difference. The commercial CFD code of CFX4.4 together with the condensation region model can simulate the thermal mixing behavior reasonably well when a sufficient number of mesh distributions and a proper numerical method are selected.     

PIV measurements of turbulent jet and pool mixing produced by a steam jet discharge in a subcooled water pool

This experimental research is on the fluid-dynamic features produced by a steam injection into a subcooled water pool. The relevant phenomena could often be encountered in water cooled nuclear power plants. Two major topics, a turbulent jet and the internal circulation produced by a steam injection, were investigated separately using a particle image velocimetry (PIV) as a non-intrusive optical measurement technique. Physical domains of both experiments have a two-dimensional axi-symmetric geometry of which the boundary and initial conditions can be readily and well defined. The turbulent jet experiments with the upward discharging configuration provide the parametric values for quantitatively describing a turbulent jet such as the self-similar velocity profile, central velocity decay, spreading rate, etc. And in the internal circulation experiments with the downward discharging configuration, typical flow patterns in a whole pool region are measured in detail, which reveals both the local and macroscopic characteristics of the mixing behavior in a pool. This quantitative data on the condensing jet-induced mixing behavior in a pool could be utilized as benchmarking for a CFD simulation of relevant phenomena.     

Experimental study on the direct contact condensation of steam jet in the passive safety injection tank

The direct contact condensation and subsequent thermal mixing by the injected steam jet onto a quiescent coolant inside a tank were examined experimentally to simulate the phenomena in passive safety injection systems. Specifically, the influence of the steam injection velocity was studied. Even though the total flow rate of injected steam was unchanged, the pressure inside the tank increased quickly at the larger nozzle diameter. Additionally, at a larger nozzle diameter, the thickness of the thermal mixing zone decreased because the amount of direct contact condensation decreased. For the in-depth study on the role of the nozzle size for the thermal mixing, the particle image velocimetry method was used to understand the flow field of water inside the tank. The visualization results demonstrated the formation of a flow field in the coolant due to the expansion and contraction of the steam–air mixture boundary. Furthermore, the thermal mixing zone was found to be closely related to the penetration depth. Finally, a variety of penetration models were examined and compared against the experimental observation. The correlations based on the steam condensation approach under-predicted the penetration depth, whereas the approach that considers the momentum of non-condensable gas gave the reasonable prediction capability.     

振荡区下蒸汽冷凝过程的热工水力模型建立及验证

蒸汽射流冷凝过程具有强烈的凝结换热能力,广泛应用于先进非能动反应堆安全系统中,但该过程会产生强烈的压力振荡现象。为研究蒸汽浸没射流冷凝振荡现象的本质,从基本守恒方程式出发,建立了气泡边界层质量交换模型、气泡控制方程模型、气泡内蒸汽压力计算模型、水池中任意位置处压力计算模型等关键模型,构建了模拟水池中蒸汽气泡冷凝振荡过程的热工水力模型。运用建立的气泡半径和水池内压力的计算模型获取气泡半径和压力随时间变化的规律,并与Chun实验和Fukuda实验的实验数据进行比对,验证了模型的有效性,为后续开展冷凝振荡机理研究打下理论基础。     

大型先进压水堆非能动冷却水箱关键热工水力特性研究综述

第3代大型先进压水堆设置非能动余热排出系统,包括大容积高位水箱及其内置的非能动余热排出热交换器(PRHR HX)和自动降压系统（ADS）喷洒器,在运行过程中呈现出复杂的气液两相热工水力现象和独特的传热、传质特性。近年来随着非能动安全系统工程需求和相关研究的兴起,国内外开展了一些针对大容积非能动冷却水箱及其内置关键部件热工水力特性的相关研究,本文对上述问题的研究现状进行综述。对于PRHR HX,评价特殊C型管束在单相自然对流、两相沸腾条件下的传热特性,分析经典传热模型及改进经验关联式的适用性;对于ADS 1~3级喷洒器高温高压蒸汽喷放冷凝过程,综合分析其喷放冷凝流型、特征参数、冷凝换热系数等关键传热、传质特性。以上研究大幅丰富了第3代大型先进压水堆大容积水箱的设计理论,并进行了实际工程应用。本文在此基础上,对相关研究未来发展方向进行展望。     

Analysis of Direct Contact Condensation of Flowing Steam onto Injected Water with Multifluid Model of Two-Phase Flow

When subcooled water in accumulator tanks is injected during a loss-of-coolant accident of a pressurized water reactor, violent condensation takes place in cold legs because of direct contact of steam with water. A flow model based on the multifluid model of the two-phase flow has been developed to formulate the condensation and mixing processes in the injection region. The measured liquid film temperature and pressure profiles in the injection region have been explained quantitatively with the model which includes (a) drop generation arising from atomization of injected water, (b) condensation of steam on the drops, (c) flow contraction resulting from the formation of the dead water region, and (d) deposition of the drops. The calculated results show that the condensation rate depends mostly on the drop diameter generated near the water injection nozzle and the maximum drop mass fraction in the injection region. The present model can predict the effect of inlet thermal-hydraulic conditions on the condensation rate qualitatively, and then it has been confirmed that higher condensation rate with initial steam mass velocity is caused by the formation of finer drops and the higher drop mass fraction in the injection region.     

Jet-plume condensation of steam-air mixtures in subcooled water. Part 2: Code model

The system-analysis thermal-hydraulics code, TRACE, was used to model jet-plume condensation of steam and steam-air mixtures in a subcooled pool. The code model was used to compare the pool temperature development in a scaled-down test facility suppression pool (SP) represented by an idealized trapezoidal cross-section and 1/10 sector of a with scaled height ratio of 1/4.5 and volume ratio of 1/400. Thermal stratification and pool mixing data obtained in the experimental test section at different pool initial subcooling and steam/air mixture flow rates were used a validation suite to benchmark against the performance of the code. Agreement of the code simulations to experiments were seen in cases of pool mixing, however, instances of pool thermal stratification and transitional regimes between stratification and mixing were not predicted correctly by the code. The experimental database described in part 1 to this paper provides the benchmark suite to be used for future developmental improvement in areas of the code which may have future application to analysis of thermal heat removal rates in large pools.     

喷洒器蒸汽浸没射流汽羽长度实验研究

以孔径分别为4、10、16 mm的侧开孔I型喷洒器为实验件,对质量流速为300~1100 kg·m?2·s?1的饱和蒸汽浸没在温度为35~65℃的过冷水中的直接接触式冷凝开展实验研究。结果表明:孔径不变时,汽羽贯穿长度基本随蒸汽质量流速和池水温度的升高而增大;大孔径喷洒器的汽羽长度与直管式喷嘴的汽羽长度接近,拟合值与实验值的偏差在±15%以内;小孔径喷洒器的汽羽长度明显低于直管式喷嘴,拟合值与实验值的偏差最高达80%;采用收缩喷管流量公式对蒸汽质量流速进行修正,拟合值与实验值的偏差在±20%以内,由实验值拟合的新关系式的预测误差在±10%以内。      

System Code Calculation and Experimental Verification for Double-hole Steam Jet Condensation Heat Transfer Process Based on ADS1 3 Scaled Model

The steam direct contact condensation of high-temperature steam in sub-cooled water is an important way to reduce the temperature and pressure in the primary circuit in the third generation of advanced pressurized water reactors such as AP1000 and CAP1400 in the event of accidental overpressure. Based on the system codes of RELAP5 and COSINE, the process of saturated steam injecting into large volume sub-cooled water through a double-hole nozzle was modeled, calculated and analyzed. The temperature distributions along the axial direction of the high-temperature steam ejected from the nozzle were obtained. At the same time, the visual experiments of steam jet condensation were performed. The thermocouple matrix and high-speed camera were used to measure the key thermal-hydraulic parameters to obtain the temperature distributions along the steam plume and the flow patterns of the steam jet, which were used to verify the accuracy of the system code to simulate the process of steam spraying and condensation. The results show that the system code RELAP5 can basically simulate the general trend of ADS steam condensation process under the simplified model. The average error of the simulation results is 2.97% compared with the experimental results. In addition, the COSINE code was used to further modify and improve the model of the spraying condensation process. Considering the influence of the overall flow in the water tank on the condensation characteristics, the simulation results fit well with the experimental results, with an average error of 1.89%. However, the actual double-hole spraying process is complex and has obvious three-dimensional characteristics, so the relevant condensation heat transfer model in the system code still needs to be further improved to simulate its local condensation characteristics more accurately.     

基于ADS1～3缩比模型的双孔蒸汽喷放冷凝传热系统程序计算与实验验证

高温蒸汽在过冷水中喷放直接接触式冷凝是AP1000、CAP1400等三代先进压水堆一回路在事故超压情况下重要的降温降压途径。本文基于系统程序RELAP5、COSINE对饱和蒸汽通过双孔喷洒器喷入大容积过冷水中进行直接接触冷凝这一过程进行建模、计算、分析,获得高温蒸汽从喷口喷出后沿轴向的温度分布。同时开展蒸汽喷放冷凝可视化实验,采用热电偶矩阵和高速摄像机等对关键热工参数进行测量,以获得蒸汽汽羽的温度分布和喷放流型等,用于验证系统程序对蒸汽喷放冷凝过程模拟的准确性。结果表明,采用RELAP5程序基本能模拟简化条件下的ADS蒸汽喷放冷凝总体变化规律,模拟结果与实验结果相比平均误差为2.97%。此外,采用COSINE程序对喷放冷凝过程模型进行了进一步修正和改进,考虑水箱内整体流动对喷放特性的影响,模拟结果与实验结果吻合较好,平均误差为1.89%。但由于实际双孔喷放过程较为复杂,并且存在明显的三维特性,所以仍需对系统程序中相关冷凝传热模型进行完善,以更精确地模拟其局部冷凝特征。     

基于系统分析软件的IRWST中PRHR HX建模方法研究

本文针对AP1000内置换料水箱(IRWST)热工水力特性缩比实验4种典型的沸腾工况,应用两种不同的系统分析软件（RELAP5/SCDAPSIM mod3.4和COSINE）,将三维模型简化为一维模型。基于单通道和多通道两种不同建模方法,研究不同的初始温度、加热功率、水箱水位工况下,水箱内的温度、沸腾时间等参数的变化。结果表明,RELAP5单通道模型与多通道模型计算结果低于实验值,COSINE的单通道模型与多通道模型计算结果高于实验值,两种软件的计算精度相当。RELAP5计算模型的沸腾时间整体上晚于实验时间,COSINE计算模型的沸腾时间整体上早于实验时间,采用多通道模型后,每个工况达到沸腾的时间均短于单通道模型,表明采用多通道建模方法后,模型整体的换热能力提高,缩短了模型整体沸腾所需的时间。在系统安全分析的建模过程中,可根据水箱内温度、整体沸腾时间对安全保守性的影响,确定具体的建模策略。     

非能动余热排出换热器换热能力数值分析

基于多孔介质模型,对AP1000非能动余热排出换热器(PRHR-HX)运行初始阶段进行了数值模拟。一回路的入口温度及流量采用RELAP5的计算结果,并以此作为CFD计算的边界条件。采用多孔介质模型处理C型管束区,添加管束区分布阻力。通过商业CFD软件FLUENT计算得到安全壳内置换料水箱(IRWST)侧冷却剂的三维温度及速度分布,通过用户自定义函数UDF完成一回路侧与IRWST侧的耦合换热计算,获得一回路温度分布及换热量。计算结果表明,随着IRWST内冷却剂温度升高,换热器热负荷降低,并出现明显的热分层现象,同时证明采用多孔介质模型与耦合换热计算是分析PRHR/IRWST系统瞬态热工水力特性的有效方法。     

竖直向下浸没式蒸汽直接接触冷凝流型研究

直接接触冷凝直接影响核反应堆安全壳抑压系统的性能。本文针对竖直向下浸没式直接接触冷凝流型开展实验研究,采用高速摄影仪记录不同湿阱过冷度条件下的蒸汽冷凝过程,依据流型特征划分了喘振、管外颈缩、向上球型脱落、向上T型脱落4种冷凝流型。研究了各流型对湿阱热分层的影响。实验结果表明,喘振流型和管外颈缩流型会增强湿阱内流体搅混,不易发生热分层,而向上球型脱落流型和向上T型脱落流型易引起热分层。理查森数（Ri）可作为流型转变的无量纲数,Ri<1时为管外颈缩流型,Ri>1时为向上脱落流型。     

Three-dimensional behaviors of the hydrogen and steam in the APR1400 containment during a hypothetical loss of feed water accident

During a hypothetical severe accident in a nuclear power plant (NPP), hydrogen is generated by an active reaction of the fuel-cladding and the steam in the reactor pressure vessel and released with the steam into the containment. In order to mitigate hydrogen hazards which could possibly occur in the NPP containment, a hydrogen mitigation system (HMS) is usually adopted. The design of the next generation NPP (APR1400) developed in Korea specifies that 26 passive autocatalytic recombiners and 10 igniters should be installed in the containment for a hydrogen mitigation. In this study, an analysis of the hydrogen and steam behavior during a total loss of feed water (LOFW) accident in the APR1400 containment has been conducted by using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code GASFLOW. During the accident, a huge amount of hot water, steam, and hydrogen is released into the in-containment refueling water storage tank (IRWST). The current design of the APR1400 includes flap-type openings at the IRWST vents which operate depending on the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the IRWST. It was found from this study that the flaps strongly affect the flow structure of the steam and hydrogen in the containment. The possibilities of a flame acceleration and a transition from deflagration to detonation (DDT) were evaluated by using the Sigma–Lambda criteria. Numerical results indicate that the DDT possibility was heavily reduced in the IRWST compartment by the effects of the flaps during the LOFW accident.     

Analytical thermal hydraulic model for oscillatory condensation of steam in presence of air

An analytical thermal hydraulic model has been developed from fundamental conservation laws, for the process of oscillatory condensation of steam in a pool of water, in presence of non-condensable gas (air). The oscillatory condensation phenomena addressed here is steam chugging, with an emphasis laid on studying the effect of small amount of air present in steam, on the phenomena. The objective of developing the model is to present an approximation of the real phenomena and to obtain an analytical solution. At the outset, a parametric study was conducted by using the developed model to capture and identify the salient features of steam chugging and compare the wave shapes obtained with those available in open literature. Subsequently, the effect of presence of air in steam was studied in detail using the non-condensable gas model. An attempt has been made to show numerically that the presence of a small amount of air in steam would effectively stabilize condensation and prevent inception of chugging. Typical results are presented in this paper to bring out the difference in oscillatory behavior due to presence and absence of non-condensable gas.     

Experimental verification of the fast reactor safety analysis code SIMMER-III for transient bubble behavior with condensation

Experimental verification of a reactor safety analysis code, SIMMER-III, was undertaken for transient behaviors of large-scale bubbles with condensation. The present study aimed to verify the code for numerical simulations of relatively short-time-scale multi-phase, multi-component hydraulic problems. Among these, vaporization and condensation, or simultaneous heat and mass transfer, play important roles. In this study, a series of transient bubble behavior experiments dedicated to condensation phenomena with noncondensable gases was carried out. In the experiments, a pressurized mixture of noncondensable gas and steam was discharged as a large-scale single bubble into a cylindrical pool filled with stagnant subcooled water. The concentration of noncondensable gas was taken as an experimental parameter as was the species of noncondensable gas. The characteristics of transient behavior of large-scale bubbles with condensation observed in the experiments were estimated through experimental analyses using SIMMER-III. In the experiments with steam condensation, dispersion of the gas mixture discharged into the liquid pool was accompanied by vapor condensation at the bubble surface. SIMMER-III simulations suggested that the noncondensable gas had a less inhibiting effect on the condensation of large-scale bubbles. This is a different characteristic to that of the quasi-steady condensation of small-scale bubbles observed in our previous experiments.     

补水箱内的直接接触冷凝模型研究

补水箱是核反应堆安全系统中的重要设备。事故工况下补水箱内可发生剧烈的直接接触冷凝过程,导致补水箱内压力的迅速降低乃至振荡,影响补水箱的安全注入功能。为提高对补水箱安注行为预测的准确性,本文基于射流速度分布理论和假想管嘴分析方法,考虑液相的温度分层对传热温差的影响,结合补水箱内直接接触冷凝的一般过程,建立了针对性的冷凝传热计算方法。利用该模型对现有实验数据进行了预测,符合良好,初步验证了模型的有效性。相关研究有助于提高补水箱安注过程和相关事故安全分析的准确性。     

Pressure suppression pool mixing in passive advanced BWR plants

In the SBWR passive boiling water reactor, the long-term post-accident containment pressure is determined by the combination of noncondensible gas pressure and steam pressure in the wetwell gas space. The suppression pool (SP) surface temperature, which determines the vapor partial pressure, is very important to overall containment performance. Therefore, the thermal stratification of the SP due to blowdown is of primary importance. This work looks at the various phases and phenomena present during the blowdown event and identifies those that are important to thermal stratification, and the scaling necessary to model them in reduced size tests. This is important in determining which of the large body of blowdown to SP data is adequate for application to the stratification problem. The mixing by jets from the main vents is identified as the key phenomena influencing the thermal response of the suppression pool and analytical models are developed to predict the jet influence on thermal stratification. The analytical models are implemented into a system simulation code, TRACG, and used to model thermal stratification behavior in a scaled test facility. The results show good general agreement with the test data.     

Condensation regime diagram for supersonic/sonic steam jet in subcooled water

This study was designed to determine the behaviour of the flow patterns of supersonic and sonic steam jet condensation in subcooled water. The effects of steam mass flux, water temperature and pressure ratio on the flow pattern were discussed. The results indicated that the flow pattern was not only affected by steam mass flux and water temperature, but also affected significantly by pressure ratio. The expansion and contraction ratios of the steam plume were influenced significantly by pressure ratio, and a correlation for predicting the expansion and contraction ratio was given based on the theoretical expansion ratio of sonic steam jet. At relatively low steam mass flux and high water temperature, the transition of flow pattern from stable jet to unstable jet was observed, and a criterion of stable-unstable jet transition was given. Moreover, the three-dimensional condensation regime maps, including stable steam plume shapes and unstable jet, for sonic and supersonic steam jet under different conditions were discussed. Four different shapes of the steam plume occurred in sonic steam jet regime map, and six different shapes of the steam plume occurred in supersonic steam jet regime map. The regime maps were also validated against the previous experiments.