Role of urban greenway systems in planning residential communities: a case study from Egypt

Greenways have long played a significant role in the development of urban and sub-urban areas. They help mitigate the loss of “natural” space, often have scenic qualities, provide for recreation, education, a sense of well-being, and preservation of the natural habitat. This article explores the concept, history and development of urban greenways. The article illustrates the concept of linked parks and urban greenways in structuring urban and sub-urban developments while suggesting a methodological blueprint for their implementation in the planning process. A case study of a sub-urban development west of the city of Cairo, Egypt is presented to demonstrate the role of urban greenway systems in planning residential communities. An in-depth investigation of the planning process, context, approach, and development concept is followed by an overview of the rationale and significance of the method. The objective of this article is thus two-fold. First, to illustrate the concept of urban greenway systems in structuring communities; and second, to suggest a model for the integration and proper application of the concept of linked parks and urban greenway systems in planning residential communities. In conclusion, the article identifies a step-by-step procedure for integrating natural, recreational and cultural greenways and corridors in planning future residential developments.     

A preliminary study on the local cool-island intensity of Taipei city parks

That green-spaces relieve urban heat is well known in urban landscape planning. Scientific information on what kinds of green-spaces best reduce heat, however, is still largely unknown. This is a preliminary study aimed at (1) devising a method to detect and compare the local cool-island intensities of various urban parks; (2) verifying that this local cool-island intensity differs among parks; (3) determining whether this local cool-island intensity is related to park characteristics.Results from air–temperature measurements in and around 61 Taipei city parks showed that urban parks were on average cooler than their surroundings, confirming the term “urban cool-islands.” However, approximately one-fifth of the parks were warmer than their urban surroundings. At noon in summer, parks with ≥50% paved coverage and little tree- and shrub-cover were on average warmer than their surroundings. Large parks were on average cooler than the smaller ones, but this relationship was non-linear.In Taipei, parks differed in their local cool-island intensity and this intensity can be related to park characteristics. Before further details concerning better planning and design approaches to mitigate urban heat-islands can be addressed, a neighborhood-scaled understanding of the urban microclimate is first needed as a basis.     

Resilient cities: meaning, models, and metaphor for integrating the ecological, socio-economic, and planning realms

Urban designers, ecologists, and social scientists have called for closer links among their disciplines. We examine a promising new tool for promoting this linkage—the metaphor of “cities of resilience.” To put this tool to best use, we indicate how metaphor fits with other conceptual tools in science. We then present the two opposing definitions of resilience from ecology, and give reasons why one is more appropriate for linking with design. Additional specific tools and insights that are emerging from, or being increasingly used in, ecology can further support the linkage with urban design. These include recognizing the role of spatial heterogeneity in both ecological and social functioning of urban areas, the integrating power of watersheds, social and ecological patch dynamics of cities, the utility of spatial mosaic models to capture function, the use of an integrated “human ecosystem” modeling framework, and the consequent perspective of metropolitan areas as integrated ecological-social systems. Three additional tools are related to the adaptability of people and human institutions. First is the recognition of a “learning loop” in metropolitan ecosystems in which people respond to and affect ecological change, the use of urban design as experiments whose ecological and social outcomes can be measured, and finally the potency of a dialog between professionals and citizens, communities, and institutions, to support both research and design. The metaphor of resilience, and its technical specifications, draw these diverse strands for linking ecology and planning together.     

绿道系统引导城市形态持续性发展的机制——以美国夏洛特大都市区为例

绿道系统作为多尺度多用途的绿色基础设施网络,已成为引导城市形态紧凑化发展的重要途径,也是促进城市健康发展的重要空间载体。当前中国城市绿道系统的规划和管理仍处于探索阶段,亟须借鉴国际城市绿道系统规划和建设的成功路径。对绿道发展历程进行回顾,以美国东南部有重要影响力的夏洛特大都市区为例,系统解析绿道系统引导城市形态持续性发展的规划策略和实现路径,总结其在优化城市空间结构、促进健康城市生活方式、改善生态环境等方面的多重效益,以期为当前中国绿道系统的持续性规划建设过程提供整体性和先导性保障的策略借鉴,并为绿道系统引导城市形态精明增长和健康发展提供路径支撑。     

北京市绿色空间生态概念规划研究

城市绿色空间是由园林绿地、城市森林、立体空间绿化、都市农田和绿色廊道等构成的绿色网络系统.绿色空间生态服务功能的强弱取决于绿色空间规划的科学性、合理性以及管理水平等.在分析了北京市绿色空间的现状和存在的问题后,提出了北京市绿色空间的发展战略.提出以绿色容积率作为生态控制指标,从区域和北京湾两个层次进行绿色空间规划建设.在北京湾内应将城市森林、都市农业、城市园林和绿色廊道统一规划.最后提出了北京市绿色空间发展的分区调控对策.     

城市公园——城市生物多样性契机——原生乡土植被覆盖城市指导原则

匀质化的城市化环境不断威胁着野生生物栖息地,同时也造成城市生物多样性的日益贫乏.而城市公园为城市化环境下生物多样性的提高打开了一扇窗.乡土植被的覆盖、小气候生境的多样、水体的连通性以及绿地牛念系统的网络化连接,将会显著改善城市公园的生物多样性.城市公园的规划设计过程中,应严格遵照生物多样性规划设计原则、遵循相关的生物多样性友好措施,着眼于长远,必将能改善生境,促进城市的可持续发展.     

Turning brownfields into green space in the City of Toronto

Since the mid-1980s, policy makers and planners in North America and Europe have been paying significantly more attention to measures designed to foster sustainable development and improve the quality of life in urban areas. One issue that has received widespread political support has been the cleanup and redevelopment of under-utilized brownfield sites in urban areas. In Canada and the US, the focus of policy-making and redevelopment efforts has been on redeveloping brownfield sites for industrial, commercial, or residential uses that provide economic benefits through tax revenues and/or jobs. However, there has been a growing recognition among community groups and environmental organizations that brownfields hold enormous potential for “greening” city environments, through the implementation of parks, playgrounds, trails, greenways, and other open spaces. The objectives of the current research are to examine the issues, obstacles and processes involved in remediating potentially contaminated urban brownfield sites and converting them into green spaces, to identify the benefits that these green spaces can bring to the community and culture, and to understand the specific planning processes that it involves. Data for this study were collected through a review of 10 pertinent “greening” case studies and personal interviews with relevant stakeholders. Toronto’s brownfield-to-green space redevelopment experience has implications for cities across North America undergoing brownfield planning and seeking to enhance urban quality of life.     

城市特殊生境绿化技术研究——以上海20年的研究成果为例

城市里大量的不透水面引发绿地空间严重缩水、热岛效应加剧、城市雨洪频发等一系列严重的城市环境问题。解决人口密度大、绿化用地少与高质量实现扩绿增绿、实现城市居民对美好生活向往的矛盾,成为城市生态建设和环境提升的核心难题,开展路面、屋面、墙面及桥柱等城市特殊生境绿化成为城市高质量发展和城市品质提升的关键抓手。以上海为例,总结了近20年来城市特殊生境绿化的研究进展,围绕植物、介质、模块和管护四要素,从生境的特殊性、适生植物种质创新和定向筛选、生境重建、一体化技术、低维护管理及功能评价等方面取得了系列理论积淀和技术创新,实践了有限空间的持续生长理念,形成完整的特殊生境绿化技术体系,为公园城市建设发挥重要支撑作用。     

Neighborhood socioeconomic status is a useful predictor of perennial landscape vegetation in residential neighborhoods and embedded small parks of Phoenix, AZ

Though landscape vegetation in cities is human-mediated and often more diverse than that in surrounding environments, little work has been done to quantify ways that humans shape its composition. Our study identified important sources of variation in perennial vegetation composition within residential neighborhoods of Phoenix, AZ, USA. We hypothesized that neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) should offer some capacity for predicting landscape vegetation richness and abundance in both residential neighborhoods and embedded small city parks. As predicted, neighborhood vegetation richness increased across a gradient of low to high SES (R²=0.89) with the most variation explained by median family income (R²=0.86). In contrast, neighborhood vegetation abundance decreased across a gradient of increased time since disturbance (R²=0.62) with the most variation explained by median year of neighborhood development (R²=0.56). Median year of neighborhood development was also the dominant factor (R²=0.47) in explaining decreased park vegetation abundance across a gradient of increased time since disturbance. We were least able to predict park vegetation richness and could account for only 29% of variation using a SES gradient model with percent of population having a graduate education as the most dominant factor. In residential neighborhoods, we identified more than 3 times the number of landscape vegetation taxa than an earlier report and also found a higher percentage of native vegetation in parks than in surrounding neighborhoods. We discuss these different compositional patterns of perennial vegetation in neighborhoods and embedded parks in terms of their relationship to socioeconomic and disturbance gradients, and a conceptual framework of “top-down” and “bottom-up” human management influences. Our study intimates that residential vegetation composition in rapidly expanding, arid cities like Phoenix is largely driven by “luxury” and legacy effects and should be most rich in neighborhoods with the highest socioeconomic standing and most abundant in newest neighborhoods.     

基于提高鸟类多样性的北京城市线性公园绿地植物景观探析

植被覆盖率高的线性公园,可作为鸟类的迁徙途径和栖息之所,并猜测其可作为生态廊道的一部分,适宜的营造植物景观、提升植物种类的多样性对保护鸟类多样性有促进作用。因此,采用标准取样法对北京城市线性公园绿地进行研究,提取可能影响鸟类多样性的植物群落因素、植物生境因素,对提高鸟类多样性提出建设性的意见。研究结果主要表明,在线性公园绿地宽度30～200m内,随着宽度的增加,鸟类的数量有所提高;含有不同类型植物生境的线性公园绿地,对鸟类目标种的吸引力不同,植物生境类型数较多样的线性公园绿地具有较高的鸟类目标种吸引力;不同的鸟类目标种偏好在不同的树种上进行活动。     

The evolution of Greenways in China

This paper focuses on the evolution of Greenway planning and implementation in China, and provides a historical context to the Greenway concept. It was found that:

(1) Although the concept of Greenway was an adaptation from the Western World, the Chinese have a history of more than 2000 years of Greenway planning and implementation. Chinese Greenways have been called various names and were planned for various reasons.

(2) The long history of Greenway planning and implementation in China was mainly a “top-down” approach, which, while very effective under a centralized administrative system, often lacked a scientific basis and significant public participation.

(3) The functions of the Greenways were mainly protection and productive, with little concern for human uses such recreational uses of cycling and hiking.

Greenways in China are discussed chronologically and in three categories:

(1) Riparian Greenways run along rivers, streams and water channels. The history of these Greenways dates more than 2000 years, since a time when trees were grown along canals and city moats. They have in modern times evolved into a network of drainage channels.

(2) Greenways along transportation corridors. These Greenways run parallel to state and provincial highways, railroads, country roads and urban streets and evolved from tree plantings along highways. Used exclusively by emperors, the green corridor networks have been systematically planned and constructed at a national scale and directly organized by the central government.

(3) Greenways along farmland for wind protection. These plantings evolved from individual segments of windbreak rows to a network of protective windbreaks and the large, regional scale “Green Great Wall” project running along the northern edge of China.

As Greenways have evolved in China, they reflect changes in ideology, utilization and scale; from protection of production or beautification to ecological and multiple uses, and from small-scale fragments to a systematic regional and national network. The occurrence of disasters, the involvement of state leaders and the influence of science played an important role in the evolution of Greenways in China.The paper also argues that:

• the traditional top-down approach in Greenway planning and implement should be integrated with scientifically based methods;

• recreational uses should be considered and integrated into existing and planned Greenways;

• the recently invoked “city beautiful”, or cosmetic approach to Greenway planning and implementation should be stopped; and

• Greenways should be planned as an critical strategic element of ecological infrastructure at both the regional and urban scale during current rapid and extensive urbanization occurring in China.

小尺度公园对于城市热岛效应的缓解作用——基于南京市中心城区社区公园的实证研究

Cities have suffered from urban heat island (UHI) effect due to rapid urbanization, which can be effectively adjusted by urban green space. Taking the community parks in central area of Nanjing, Jiangsu Province as an example, this paper explored the size and shape of smallscale parks to mitigate the UHI effect. Land surface temperature was retrieved from Landsat 8-OLI remote-sensing image of 2019. The 52 studied community parks were identified with ArcGIS 10.4, and classified by kernel building density. The threshold-size and optimal shape of community parks to mitigate UHI effect were then discussed. The results showed that 1) with the increase of buffer ring distance around the community parks, the cooling intensity decreased and the cooling extent were mostly less than 180 m; 2) the area, shape, and the NDVI of the parks were important factors affecting the cooling intensity; 3) the cooling intensity of community parks under a high kernel building density was better, with a higher threshold-size (0.848 hm2) than that of the low ones (0.384 hm2); and 4) the optimal cooling intensity would occur when the park in a shape of circle or square. In conclusion, it is suggested that small green space should be planned in the areas under a high building density. Through renewal design and refined management measures in the urban green space system planning, giving full play to the ecological benefits of urban green spaces in mitigating the local UHI effect can also be expected.     

STUDY OF URBAN GREENWAY PLANNING BASED ON MULTI-SOURCE DATA ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL POTENTIAL AND USER BEHAVIORS — THE GREENWAY ROUTE PLANNING OF HAIDIAN DISTRICT,BEIJING

Urban greenways play a key role to a city’s nonautomobile commuting and help alleviate traffic congestion. Currently, China’s greenway planning research and practice focuses mostly on suburban areas where greenways provide ecological, historical, cultural, and recreational services, while fewer studies explore urban greenways that serve citizens’ daily non-automobile commuting and recreational needs. Compared with suburban ones, urban greenways often face more spatial limits in the built-up areas and need to respond to more challenging demands. Supported by multisource data and the rise of big data technologies, this research explores the methods of urban greenway route planning that are underpinned through GIS spatial analyses (potential evaluation on spatial construction conditions of greenways) and big-data-based user behavior analyses (of citizens’ daily use of greenways). Demonstrating the authentic planning case for Haidian District, Beijing, the research proposes a series of construction strategies to urban corridors of roads, waterways, and railways, respectively, which integrate green spaces with non-automobile system, in order to improve the services of linear spaces in cities.     

基于栖息地的城市湿地公园生物多样性特征与指标研究

城市湿地公园具有与湿地类似的生态功能和典型特征,对城市地区的生物多样性保护具有重要意义。本文对不同地区的城市湿地公园进行研究,包括不同气候类型、使用年份和面积大小等不同方面,并对野生动物栖息地特别是鸟类栖息地进行了数据统计和分类分析。通过文献研究、数据统计和比较分析,探索城市湿地公园生物多样性保护指标体系的基本组成及其相关性。本文写作目的是建立适当的城市湿地公园栖息地评估标准,支持生态中国建设。     

Green space context and vegetation complexity shape people’s preferences for urban public parks and residential gardens

Landscape preferences shape decision-making and drive the ecological outcomes of urban landscapes. We investigate how people’s landscape preferences are shaped by the green space context (public park vs private residential garden landscapes) and by physical features such as vegetation complexity. A postal questionnaire was sent to households near seven urban parks in Melbourne, Australia. Results showed that landscapes were grouped into four categories based on patterns of preference response. Landscapes with moderate vegetation complexity were placed in separate categories distinguished by green space context (parks vs gardens), while very simple and very complex landscapes were placed in different categories irrespective of green space context. Surprisingly, dense vegetation was highly preferred by respondents. As areas of dense vegetation also provide complex habitats for wildlife, this highlights the possibility of developing policies and designing landscapes that can benefit both people and nature.     

一种新型绿地空间模式的探索——以郑州环城绿道网为例

随着城市经济的快速发展,城市化进程的加快,城乡结合带的森林资源、自然文化资源正在逐渐被蚕食。为了避免这一现象的加剧,通过对当今新型绿地空间模式的探索,结合对郑州市域特征和山水空间格局的分析,提出在郑州市区以外的城乡结合区域＂整合资源、强化联系,充实内容、提档升级,完善设施、加强服务,划定绿线、加强保护＂的规划构想,选取了5条游憩绿道,连接了市区外部的大部分旅游资源和32个都市区森林公园,使它们共同形成了一个集健康、生态、宜居为一体的复合型、多元化、多功能的环城森林游憩绿道网。从而应对城市经济的快速发展过程中对郑州城市生态环境的考验,缓解城市的无序扩张,稳定郑州城市生态安全格局,满足人们日益增长的物质精神生活需求,促进城乡统筹的和谐健康永续发展。     

国标编制相关的城市公园绿地主要规划 指标研究

公园绿地是城市人居环境建设的重要生态基础设施。在参与国家《城市绿地规划标准》的编制过程中,通过对159个中国城市(含港澳台地区)主要公园类型发展现状的大样本数据分析,提炼相关的城市公园建设主要规划指标,包括公园绿地的面积规模、绿地率和功能分区。研究表明:我国城市综合公园的建设规模多为10~50hm^2,社区公园多为0.1~5hm^2;综合公园的绿地率平均值为75%左右,社区公园绿地率平均值为65%左右。综合公园需具备儿童游戏、休闲游憩、运动康体和文化科普4项基本功能,兼容园务管理、演艺娱乐与商业服务等配套功能。社区公园需具备儿童游戏和休闲游憩2项基本功能,兼容运动康体和文化科普等辅助功能。合理地确定城市公园绿地的规划指标,有利于我国城市绿地规划理论与实践走上科学化、法制化、规范化的发展轨道。     

Woodland as a setting for housing-appreciation and fear and the contribution to residential satisfaction and place identity in Warrington New Town, UK

This study evaluates “woodland in the ecological style” as a setting for contemporary housing by means of a case study of Birchwood, Warrington New Town, UK, using a postal questionnaire and semi-structured interviews to reveal residents’ perceptions of the aesthetic and safety aspects of the woodland, together with its underlying meanings. Most Birchwood residents liked the visual appearance of their street, though they had both positive and negative feelings towards its “trees and greenery”. Woodland in the local area figured prominently amongst the residents’ favourite places though some feared that they would be the victims of physical or sexual assault, or of robbery or intimidation from groups of young people in the woodland, and women felt particularly vulnerable. Whilst the woodland was significant for many residents it was not strongly identified with Birchwood as a place: the quality of the community as symbolised by the behaviour of local individuals, community groups and institutions was regarded as a more potent measure of local identity. Colourful and well-tended landscape interventions had the ability to act as signs of a caring community. The contribution of these findings to theoretical frameworks of residential satisfaction, restorative experiences and place identity is discussed: it is suggested, inter alia, that whilst signs of individual and collective care in the landscape contribute to communal place identity, individual experiences of wilder urban green spaces, including those of a restorative nature, are formative of individual place attachment. The implications for planning, design and management with ecological woodland are explored: urban dwellers should be able to choose their preferred way of interacting with the woodland, residential settings should accommodate a wide variety of user needs, and the vegetation on and around the streetscape should be proactively managed in consultation with the community.     

绿色生态城区的规划设计研究——章丘市绣源河绿色生态城区规划设计

在绿色生态城区理念的指导下,章丘绣源河绿色生态城区在绿色建筑、绿色交通、绿色能源、绿色市政4个专项方面进行规划设计,设定各自的设计目标,明确了绿色生态城区的发展方向,确定了生态城区的最终目标定位,打造一个绿色、生态的绣源河城区。绣源河生态城区的规划设计丰富了现阶段的生态城区建设的内涵,为改善城市粗放发展模式和提高城市建设水平提供借鉴,引导城区绿色化、生态化和低碳化发展,为以后章丘市城区的发展提供了一种新的思路。     

Pattern and divergence of tree communities in Taipei's main urban green spaces

Urban vegetation increasingly contributes to nature conservation and ecosystem services, but lacking understanding of site variations has restricted such uses. This study analyzed the spatial pattern and differentiation of tree communities in three major green landscape types (urban parks, riverside parks and street verges) in Taipei city. In each landscape type, 10 representative tree communities were studied. Statistical tests for ecological communities were employed: Jaccard and Q species similarity indices, two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN), and new species fidelity, landscape fidelity and composite Q indices. Significant recent increase in Taipei's green spaces was traced. The study area contained 164 tree species, but few were shared by the three landscape types and none by 30 communities. Native evergreen broadleaf species with large final dimensions were dominant. Urban parks registered the highest species richness, landscape fidelity, rare species and urban endemics. Such exclusive species constitution deviated notably from riverside parks and street verges, with relatively simple and converging intra-site species ingredients. Pronounced species differentiation between urban parks reflected diversified site topography, natural woodland inheritance, woodland creation, and past landscape fashion. TWINSPAN classified the communities into nine groups each with signature characteristics. Inherent site variations offered main determinants of tree heterogeneity, superimposed by human modification to satisfy pre-determined site functions. A hybrid urban park with high species diversity and nature contents is advocated by amalgamating conventional but polarized designs of country and urban parks. The findings could inform management of urban forest, urban nature conservation, and ecological services of urban green spaces.