The impact of the homestead food garden programme on food security in South Africa

The South African government has implemented homestead food garden (HFG) programmes directed at enhancing food production in order to reduce food insecurity, malnutrition, poverty and hunger. The present paper evaluated the impact of this programme on household food insecurity using surveys of 500 households. Endogenous switching regression, propensity score matching and household food insecurity average scores were employed in our analysis. Our findings demonstrated that participation in an HFG programme could significantly enhance the food security status of participants by increasing household food supply and consumption as well as by income derived from selling any excess production from the garden. Specifically, our empirical findings showed that participation in the HFG programme significantly reduced food insecurity among rural households by as much as 41.5%. Therefore, we recommend that policy makers should encourage more rural households to participate in the programme in order to reduce their food insecurity. Facilitating easy access to credit, extension services, fertilizer, irrigation facilities and land are policy options needed to promote farmers participation in HFG programmes. Furthermore, the formation of farmer-based organizations and the building of positive perceptions about HFGs are some of the key policy options that can be employed to improve households’ participation in the programme. Promotion of education, participating in off-farm activities, access to market, irrigation, extension and credit, and adoption of fertiliser are some policy interventions that can reduce food insecurity among rural house holds whether or not they participate in the HFG programme.     

Impact of a participatory agroecological development project on household wealth and food security in Malawi

This paper presents the impacts of a participatory agroecological development project on food security and wealth levels. The Malawi Farmer to Farmer Agroecology project (MAFFA) encourages farmer experimentation, community involvement and farmer-to-farmer teaching on agroecology, nutrition and gender equity. Recent international assessments of agriculture have highlighted the urgent need for changes in farming practices in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to land degradation, high levels of food insecurity and anticipated climate change impacts. Agroecological approaches have shown great potential to address these multiple needs. Using a longitudinal panel survey data and propensity score matching to account for selection bias in project participation, we analyzed the impact of the project on household income and food security in Malawi in 2012 (Wave 1 = 1200 households) and in 2014 (Wave 2 = 1000 households). We used the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for impact evaluation. Estimates of average treatment-effects using difference in difference methods showed that participating in MAFFA has led to a significant increase in household wealth (β = 3.54, p = 0.01) and a large reduction in food insecurity (β = ?3.21, p = 0.01) compared to non-participants, after 2 years, even after accounting for covariates and selection bias. These results indicate that agroecological methods combined with farmer led knowledge exchanges can be welfare enhancing, both in terms of food security and in terms of income for family farm households. Agroecological approaches should be promoted through upscaling of farmer-to-farmer knowledge exchanges, community involvement and attention to nutrition and social equity to enhance farmer learning and household welfare benefits.     

Food security in a remittance based economy

We interviewed 395 subsistence farming households from Chitwan, Nepal in order to identify the impact of remittances and other explanatory variables on child, adult, and household food security. The highest category of the IV - ordered probit regression models with cluster robust standard errors indicated that the food security status of households, adults and children was explained by gender and age of household head, adoption of conservation agricultural technology, number of fruit trees, and income from agricultural and livestock sources. Additional variables affecting only children’s food security were the adoption of hybrid rice or maize varieties and the wage income or salary earned within the district, whereas an additional variable affecting only household and adult food security was the wage income earned outside the district. Households receiving international remittances were more food secure than those households that did not receive such remittances.     

Key factors influencing food security of smallholder farmers in Tanzania and the role of cassava as a strategic crop

Due to beneficial characteristics of cassava such as robustness and versatility for multiple uses, it can have a major role in contributing to local food security. The objective of this study was to find out whether and how the cultivation of cassava benefits smallholder farmers in the regions of Dodoma and Morogoro, Tanzania. In addition, the study assessed the main factors that support or threaten food security of smallholder farmer households in the survey region and analysed whether cassava cultivation could counteract them. We applied a mixed methods approach. Quantitative data were provided by a comprehensive household survey of the Trans-SEC project, and qualitative data were collected by conducting semi-structured interviews. To approach the complexity of our chosen food security definition, three approaches for household food security measurement were applied. These covered the components of food availability, food access, and food utilization. Additionally, dependent variables for regression models were constructed and a multivariate analysis was run. The results show that cassava contributes to food security in the households, but achieving food security through cassava cultivation was constrained by several factors, including pests, missing markets, poor processing, social perception and lack of knowledge. Besides these, other factors affecting food security in the study area were found, uncovering some roots of local food insecurity and serving as a basis for further research and action on how to enhance food security.     

Water allocation rules in Afghanistan for improved food security

In many arid countries, rules for the allocation of irrigation water when shortages occur are poorly defined. These weaknesses present a critical constraint to food security and can be a major cause of poverty and hunger. The search for flexible rules for the allocation of irrigation water is especially important in dry regions of the developing world where drought and climate change compound the challenges faced by farmers, extension advisers, water managers and governments. Afghanistan is one country in which inflexible arrangements for allocating irrigation water when drought occurs continue to undermine its food security. This paper develops and applies an empirical framework to evaluate several arrangements for the allocation of irrigation water when shortages occur. The intent of the analysis is to identify a water allocation system for sharing shortages that minimizes the loss in economic benefits and food security by efficiently sharing water supplies when the inevitable drought occurs. An integrated decision framework for water resources is developed that unifies crop, water, and farm data. Several water allocation rules that could increase the flexibility of irrigated agriculture in dealing with water shortages are analyzed for their impacts on farm profitability and food security. Findings show that a proportional sharing of water shortages, in which each canal bears an equal proportion of overall shortages, is the most flexible rule among those analyzed for limiting threats to food security and farm income. This water sharing arrangement is also seen as fair in many cultures and is simple to administer. In the developing world, the design and practical implementation of flexible rules for adapting to periodic water supply changes are important as water shortages become more pronounced in the face of droughts and climate variability. The results provide a framework for identifying, designing, and implementing water allocation rules for food security in the developing world’s irrigated areas.     

Evaluating the pathways from small-scale irrigation to dietary diversity: evidence from Ethiopia and Tanzania

Interventions that aim to increase water availability for agriculture hold great potential for improving nutrition through increasing food production, generating income, enhancing water access and sanitation and hygiene conditions, and through strengthening women’s empowerment. Yet there is scarce evidence on the linkages between small-scale irrigation and the pathways through which nutrition outcomes can be achieved. Using data from a cross-sectional household survey collected in Ethiopia and Tanzania, we explored the potential for small-scale irrigation to contribute to improved diets, and identify the pathways through which irrigation affects dietary diversity as measured by the Household Dietary Diversity Score. Unadjusted comparisons show that irrigating households in both countries produced more vegetables, fruits and cash crops, are less food insecure, have a higher value of production, and have higher production diversity and dietary diversity compared to non-irrigating households. Econometric results of a simultaneous equation (3SLS) model showed that irrigation leads to better household dietary diversity mainly through the pathway of increasing household incomes. However, these results are statistically significant only in the case of Ethiopia, and not in Tanzania. While irrigation increased production diversity in Ethiopia, the benefits of increased dietary diversity cannot be attributed to these changes in production after controlling for the effect of income. Other factors, such as gender of the household head and having off-farm income, also influence dietary diversity in Ethiopia. These findings suggest that the potential for irrigation to influence diets is highly context-specific. Understanding the particular pathways and entry points for nutrition-sensitive agriculture approaches could help to improve their benefits for nutrition.     

Impact of farm level corruption on the food security of households in Bangladesh

In this article, we have analyzed the impact of farm level corruption on households’ food security using survey data collected from 210 Bangladeshi rice farmers. Econometric results confirm that the cost of corruption adversely affects households’ calorie consumption. The marginal effect of corruption is higher for the low expenditure households relative to the high expenditure households. This happens because the high expenditure households exhibit more flexibility in terms of adjusting their budgets and hence, are able to cover the cost of corruption without affecting their food consumption, whereas for the low expenditure households such flexibility is limited and hence are forced to compromise on their food budget. Variables such as the better education of women and land holding also positively contribute to food security.     

An assessment by subsistence farmers of the risks to food security attributable to climate change in Makwanpur,Nepal

The potential impacts of climate change on the food security of subsistence farmers is a serious concern. This article explores the food security situations of two categories of subsistence farm households, vegetable- and cereal-based farming systems, in the Makwanpur district of Nepal in the context of climate change. Local climate data for the past 30 years were analyzed. Interviews with local farmers and key informants, and focus group discussions were carried out to collect the primary data. Empirical data showed that changes in climate variables for the study period were in line with farmers’ perceptions and that farming communities were negatively impacted. Perceived impacts were erratic rainfall, increased frequency of floods and droughts, soil degradation and insect pests, weeds and diseases. Farmers have modified traditional cropping patterns and calendar, changed crop varieties and increased fertilizer and pesticide applications in order to maintain crop yields. They have also sought off-farm employment. However, agricultural productivity in the area is declining and only one third of all households in the area were food secure. Household food insecurity was at mild to moderate levels, but vegetable-based households were more secure than cereal-based ones. At the household level, locally successful adaptive measures, such as rainwater harvesting, mulching, planting date adjustments, off-farm opportunities, including infrastructure and extension support, could increase production and contribute to reversing the impact of increased risk attributed to climate change.     

海南省农户家庭消费结构调查分析

农户家庭消费结构在一定程度上可以反映农民生活水平。通过调查农户家庭消费中食物消费、通讯消费、教育消费、医疗消费以及人情消费等情况,分析了海南省家庭消费结构的基本特征,探讨了影响海南省家庭消费结构的因素,在此基础上提出了优化农户家庭消费、提高农民生活水平的建议。     

Adaptation to climate change and the impacts on household food security among rural farmers in uMzinyathi District of Kwazulu-Natal,South Africa

It is anticipated that smallholder subsistence farmers will face severe negative impacts from climate change, with household food security being seriously affected. This paper examines the methods of adaptation to climate change used by smallholder farmers and their impacts on household food security. The necessity to adapt to climate change is caused by a combination of sensitivity and exposure and the success in doing so depends on adaptive capacity. Household food security was determined using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). Of the surveyed households, 95 % were aware that climate is changing and expected severe impacts on their crop production systems. Households undertake crop and soil management practices in order to respond to the changing climate. About 83 % of households anticipated that they would alter their livelihoods systems in response to climate change, with 59 % of households indicating that government grants would play an important role in this. Of those assessed, 97 % were severely food insecure and the remaining 3 % were moderately food insecure. Householders were worried about the negative impacts of climate change which included droughts, floods and soil erosion. Householders who were vulnerable to climate change recorded high levels of food insecurity. Decline in prices of farm products, increases in costs of farm inputs and anxiety over occurrence of livestock diseases exacerbated household food insecurity. Information will play a critical role in mitigating the impacts of climate change on household food security but farmers should also be assisted with appropriate input packages, such as seeds and fertilizers that can help them adapt effectively.     

Rapid gains in food security from new maize varieties for complex hillside environments through farmer participation

This is a follow-up study of two previous papers in this series in which we discussed the effectiveness of participatory varietal selection (PVS) and community-based seed production (CBSP). In this paper we present from survey results the impact of new, improved varieties on food security of farmers who had previously participated in PVS or CBSP, or both. A total of 230 households from eight locations, representing different social classes (A, B, C), castes (Dalit, Janajati, BCTN; referring to Bahun, Chhetry, Thakuri and Newar) and gender (male- or female-headed households) were randomly surveyed to assess changes in household food security after the adoption of improved varieties. Use of improved varieties, on average, increased production by 50%, compared to the existing local cultivars (2.4 t ha⁻¹) and this was reflected in the improvement of food security by 1.6 months (24% increase) in the year for all farmers. Food security for male-headed households increased from 7.4 to 9.1 months and for female-headed households from 6.4 to 7.9 months (by 23% in both). The average food security of all castes improved by 23%–31% but the increased food availability of the underprivileged castes of Dalits (from 5.1 to 6.4 months) and Janjati (from 5.8 to 7.6 months) from lower food security levels is more important than that for BCTN (from 7.5 to 9.2 months). Similarly, food deficit households (C and B) had higher food availability over the food surplus households (A). The results indicate that the targeted participatory approach can reverse the findings of past maize research and development efforts which benefited only the elite farmers.     

Synergies and tradeoffs between cash crop production and food security: a case study in rural Ghana

Despite dramatic improvements in global crop yields over the past half-century, chronic food insecurity persists in many parts of the world. Farming crops for sale (cash cropping) has been recommended as a way to increase income that can, in turn, improve food security for smallholder farmers. Despite long-term efforts by development agencies and government to promote cash cropping, there is limited evidence documenting a relationship between these crops and the food security of households cultivating them. We used a mixed methods approach to build a case study to assess these relationships by collecting quantitative and qualitative data from cacao and oil palm farmers in the Ashanti region of Ghana. Three dimensions of food security were considered: food availability, measured by the months in a year households reported inadequate food; food access, indicated by the coping strategies they employed to secure sufficient food; and food utilization, gauged by the diversity of household diets and anthropometric measurements of child nutritional status. We found significant negative relationships between each of these pillars of food security and a household’s intensity of cash crop production, measured by both quantity and area. A qualitative assessment indicated community perception of these tradeoffs and identified potential mechanisms, including increasing food prices and competing activities for land use, as underlying causes. The adverse relationship between cash crop production and household food security observed in this paper calls for caution; results suggest that positive relationships cannot be assumed, and that further empirical evidence is needed to better understand these tradeoffs.     

Aspirations and food security in rural Ethiopia

Despite some improvements in recent years, poverty and food insecurity remain widespread and the main challenges in Ethiopia. Much of the empirical literature focuses on identifying the resource-related constraints for farmers to achieve food security and move out of poverty, with little attention paid to ‘internal’ or psychological factors such as aspirations. Using individual and household data collected in rural Ethiopia, we examined if aspirations were strongly associated with well-being outcomes, in our case food security, as posited in the theoretical framework of aspirations failure. We found that aspirations of the household head were positively and strongly associated with various triangulating measures of household food security including per-capita calorie consumption, the food consumption score (FCS), the household dietary diversity score (HDDS), and negatively associated with the household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS). In contrast, results suggest that the aspirations of the spouse of the household head are negatively associated with per-capita calorie consumption and FCS. We discuss the channels through which aspirations may affect food security and the avenues for future research.     

Impact of improved maize adoption on household food security of maize producing smallholder farmers in Ethiopia

In recent years, maize has gained prominence as an important staple crop in Ethiopia second only to teff in terms of acreage. Most of this is grown by semi-subsistence farm households whose livelihoods are tied to crop production and some livestock keeping. Therefore, an important policy question concerns the impact that the reported maize revolution has had on household food security. This paper answers that question by examining the empirical regularities that explain the adoption of improved maize varieties (IMVs) and how this has impacted household food security in a sample of 2327 maize producing households in 39 districts of Ethiopia. An endogenous switching regression model supported by the dose-response continuous treatment effect method was used to empirically assess the impact of IMV adoption on per capita food consumption expenditure and perceived household food security status. Results show that IMV adoption has a robust and positive impact on per capita food consumption and also significantly increases the probability of a smallholder being in food surplus. The advances in the adoption of improved maize has thus contributed significantly to the food security of maize producing smallholders, confirming the role of crop improvement in contributing to food security of agrarian households.     

Household food security and biofuel feedstock production in rural Mozambique and Tanzania

The ongoing debate over the impact of biofuels on food security makes it difficult for governments to develop clear policies for an industry that can enhance rural employment and help to alleviate rural poverty, but may also reduce food availability and raise food prices. Whilst there have been many studies reporting a wide range of global commodity price impacts arising from the sharp rise in biofuel use over the past decade, there has been less evidence on food security impacts at a local level in developing countries. Where evidence does exist the impact is difficult to assess, often due to different types of production models and feedstocks, but also due to weaknesses in the methodologies and measures of food security used. This paper aims to help address this evidence gap by analysing household survey data from sites close to different types of biofuel operations in Mozambique and Tanzania, using an index that measures key macronutrient and micronutrient deficits at the household level. The results show that those households with employees in medium to large-scale biofuel feedstock operations achieved significantly higher food security outcomes than other households in the same locations. Furthermore, most of the households with better food security outcomes reported an improvement in food security since the biofuel operations had been established and attributed this mainly to increased and more regular income from salaried employment.     

The effect of education on household food security in two informal urban settlements in Kenya: a longitudinal analysis

Poverty and food insecurity continue to feature prominently in the global agenda, with particularly close attention being paid to the determinants of food insecurity. However, the effect of education is mixed and remains understudied in low income countries. Using longitudinal data collected between 2007 and 2012 in Kenya, we investigated the effect of household education attainment on food security among poor urban households. Household food security was constructed from a set of four key items while education was the average years of schooling for individuals aged 18 years and above in a household. To determine the association between education attainment and food security, we fitted a random effects generalised ordered probit model. The prevalence of severe food insecurity ranged from 49 % in 2008 to 35 % in 2012. The ordered probit results showed a significant effect of education on food security. The probability of being food insecure decreased by 0.019 for a unit increase in the average years of schooling for a given household. The effect of education, remained significant even after controlling for household wealth index, a more proximate determinant of food security in a cash-based economy such as the urban slums. The findings highlight the need to focus on the food security status of the urban poor. Specifically, results suggest the need for programs aimed at reducing food insecurity among the urban poor and enhancing household livelihoods. In addition, investment in the education of the slum households may, in the long term, contribute to reduction in the prevalence of food insecurity.     

Drivers of rural-urban migration and impact on food security in rural Tanzania

This paper contributes to (1) the Valletta action plan by identifying root causes of migration in Africa, and (2) the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda reflecting the close links between migration and development. Our objectives are to identify drivers of rural-urban migration in Tanzania and to examine its impact on food security. The analyses are based on survey data of 900 rural households in the Dodoma and Morogoro districts of Tanzania from 2013. The logistic regression revealed that several household characteristics such as age of the household head, household size, and dependency ratio, but also employment and welfare status determine whether any household member migrates from the rural area to an urban area. Households from the more remote and food insecure Dodoma district were more likely to have migrants looking for jobs than households from Morogoro district. The Propensity Score Matching approach revealed that migration significantly worsens the food security status of rural migrant households in terms of access, availability and stability. This outcome is explained by the loss in labor input, leading to lower agricultural productivity of rural households, which cannot be compensated by the transfer of remittances from their respective migrants. Thus, migration does not always function as a pathway out of food insecurity in developing countries.     

Exploring the profitability of improved storage technologies and their potential impacts on food security and income of smallholder farm households in Tanzania

This study assesses the profitability of selected improved grain storage technologies and the potential impact of their adoption on food security and income of smallholder maize producers in Tanzania. We used on-farm experiment data, time series maize price data, and household survey data to address the objectives. For the improved technologies, we considered Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags, metallic silos of different sizes, and polypropylene (PP) bags treated with Actellic Super®. We compared them with PP bags without insecticide treatment as the control. Results show that PICS bags and PP bags plus Actellic Super are profitable in all locations and not significantly different. While the feasible period varies by location, profit is most likely negative if farmers sell their maize in the first two months after harvest and in the last two months before the next harvest. There are mixed results with regards to the profitability of metallic silos; bigger silos are profitable for farmers who have economies of scale to use them while smaller ones are profitable only within the context of higher grain price and bigger seasonal price gap. The results also show that PICS bags (or PP bags plus Actellic Super) are useful to address food security and income objectives among poor rural households whereas metallic silos with bigger storage capacity can increase the income of those farmers who have bigger surplus grain to sale.     

The impact of improved ‘water-use security’ on women’s reliance on agricultural incomes in KwaZulu-Natal Province,South Africa

Since women are the principal food producers in most rural areas, it is argued that enhancing their water-use security would improve agricultural incomes. This study provides empirical evidence of the effect of improved water-use security on women’s dependence on agricultural incomes. Cluster analysis was employed to classify women practising either irrigation or dryland farming in the Msinga rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal, according to their dependence on agricultural incomes. The Binomial Logit model was then used to investigate the effect of improved water-use security on women’s dependence on agricultural incomes. The levels of water-use security and other dominant forms of capital assets were identified through principal components analysis (PCA). The logit results showed that higher levels of water-use security did not correspond with reliance on agricultural-based incomes. Factors such as the fragmentation of farms into smaller sizes through inheritance, poor institutional settings, and the lack of infrastructure were the main reasons why women with higher water-use security were not reliant on agricultural incomes. Other capital endowments, including social capital, access to information, agricultural production skills and land size increase women’s reliance on agricultural incomes. Women from larger households were also more likely to rely on agricultural incomes. On the other hand, dryland farmers were less likely to rely on agricultural income sources. It was concluded that high levels of water-use security can only make a positive contribution to women’s reliance on agricultural incomes when appropriate institutional and infrastructural resources exist.